托福阅读10种题型举例分析——推断题
托福阅读大家都想能更好地把题目做对，不过托福阅读题型还是很多的，不同的托福阅读题也有着不同的解决办法，具体该如何做呢?下面介绍的就是一种很常见的题目：推理题，希望能给大家一些好的建议。
托福阅读10种题型举例分析——推断题
无论是OG还是Delta，都把阅读的题目分成十类，即：Understanding Facts and Details, Identifying Negative Facts, Locating Referents, Understanding Vocabulary in Context, Making Inferences, Determining Purposes, Recognizing Paraphrases (Simplifying sentences), Recognizing Coherence (Sentence inserting), Summarizing Important Ideas and Organizing information.
还有很重要的一点，做题的时候，无论考试还是练习，不光要分析对的选项为什么对，更要分析错的选项为什么错。有时候分析错误的原因更为重要。有助于你把握出题的思路，培养感觉。这是非常有用的。
五、推断题
应该说推断题属于难度比较大，混淆选项比较难排除的一种。但如果掌握一定的技巧也不是无章可循。OG的说明是：如果 文章 提到结果，很可能让你推断原因;如果提到二者比较，很可能问你比较的基础;正确答案不是文章明显提到的，而是明显可以推出来的。最重要的一句话就是：You should be able to defend your choice by pointing to explicitly stated information in the passage that leads to the inference you have selected。正确的答案一定要有原文某句话作支持。这为排除法提供了良好依据。因为错误选项往往就是在句中加入了与原文完全无关的些许成分。这些成分就成了我们戳穿谎言的标准。做这种题一定要本着抬杠的 方法 ，只要说的不完美，含糊不清，故意夸大或隐瞒事实，无中生有，都算错。这种题是我认为最需要感觉的一类题了。
比较容易出推断题的地方，一个明显的标志是时间状语：before 2000, after 1999之类的。很可能就问你what can be inferred about _X after 2000或者before 1999. 看到这样的话，你要小心可能在此出推断题了。OG上的例子就是一个perfect example:
一看见这个题，首先就回到文中找相关信息，关键词：nineteenth century; 只要找到after nineteenth century就可以了。因为这种类型的题，给出时间状语，问某时点之后，文中给出的必然是该时点之前的内容。快速找到第一行和第三行都有19世纪的内容。第一句…. Was available to all，必然取反，选择19世纪之前，蜡烛是not available to all。而剩下三个错误选项说的全是19世纪以后才出现的内容。
另外，有助于你推断的也有可能是一些表示否定意思的词，比如different from, unlike, in contrast to等等。同样，文中给出诸如Unlike A, B is C的 句子 。然后题目问What can be inferred about A。那么把C取反，自然就是A的特点了。如OG Practice Set 1的第二题：
阅读的时候，看到unlike就要小心点;或者做第二题的时候，unlike可以帮助你有小定位。说unlike sea otters, it’s not easy to envision what the first whales looked like. 把这句话后半部分取反，那sea otters 自然是not difficult to imagine. 这也是对not easy to envision的反意paraphrase.
上面这两种应该算是推断题里最简单的，只需取反即可。还有就是纯粹需要靠推断的题了。推断不是臆断，而是必然由文中的信息能够推断出来的。但具体做起来有一定的难度。有些题需要用到简单的逻辑推理，更多的还需要前面提到的排除法。再拿上面文章8题举例：
第一段最后第二行，milksick(A)，是由于喝了病牛牛奶导致，病牛(B)是吃了有毒的叶子得的病(C), CèB, BèA, 则CèA. 而最后一条CèA就是正确答案的意思了。而错误的选项都加入了文中根本没有的元素，如A中的common illness, B中的children, D中的kill cattle，都在文中没有任何相关信息。所以都能够排除掉。
举个不太容易看出来的例子，OG Practice set 2，11题。
用排除法，A里的Government根本没提到。有人可能会说不是说有什么enforced program吗?这就需要抬杠了。非得由政府完成啊?那是你自己主观臆断的。原文根本没提到政府这回事，所以不行。B里的什么in cycle, change原文都没有;D更好抬杠，总不能大海也沙漠化吧。抬杠看似不讲道理，但正确的答案选项，你还真不好抬出杠来。因为都说得比较圆滑比较完善。不信你可以试试。这种方法看似有些荒.唐，但是杠抬得多了，一看就能看出来哪个长得像正确选项了。现在按照OG的方法证明一下正确选项D。这段第一句话说，在一些地区，减缓沙漠化的过程可能会非常困难。这必然说明作者相信沙漠化会继续，不然何谈slow or reverse?
推断题出的类型比较多，我也难以尽述。只能抛砖引玉，希望大家在练习中多找感觉了。极端、简单、假大空、无中生有都是典型的错误形式，而正确的答案看起来都让人很舒服。只要找到这种感觉，这种题不难做。
托福阅读推理类题目的解法
一、推理题的标志
托福阅读题型中推理题的题干中一般含有infer, imply, most likely, least likely, probably等词，分为有共性的推理题和无共性的推理题两大类。
二、推理题的做法
对于无共性的推理题，也就是托福阅读题干中无线索的，一般使用排除法，即根据各个选项的关键词回原文定位，通过排除法得出正确答案。
对于有共性的推理题，也就是托福阅读题干中有线索的，可以先圈定题干中的关键词，根据关键词回原文定位，然后进行推理。推理题主要有下列思路：
1.一般对比推理
ETS设计推理题的手段不多，根据两个事物的对比特征出题是其中之一。问其中一个事物的特征时，只要将与之形成对比的另一个事物的特征否定掉就可以了。例如：
It should be obvious that cetaceans–whales, porpoises, and dolphins–are mammals. They breathe through lungs, not through gills, and give birth to live young. Their streamlined bodies, the absence of hind legs, and the presence of a fluke and blowhole cannot disguise their affinities with land-dwelling mammals. However, unlike the cases of sea otters and pinnipeds (seals, sea lions, and walruses whose limbs are functional both on land and at sea), it is not easy to envision what the first whales looked like.
2. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about early sea otters?
61;It is not difficult to imagine what they looked like.
61;There were great numbers of them.
61;They lived in the sea only.
61;They did not leave many fossil remains.
根据关键词sea otters定位第四句：However, unlike the cases of sea otters and pinnipeds…，由原文的unlike可知 sea otters 和 pinnipeds 两种动物与 whales 形成对比，而且很难想象原始的 whales 的样子;根据“一般对比推理”思路，可以推出“原始的 sea otters 的样子不难想象”。第一个选项表达了此意，为正确答案。
2.时间对比推理
这种思路常被考到。在这种推理中，一般有两个形成对比的时间段，它们所具有的特征一般相反。当题干问一个时间段的特征时，只要将与之相反的时间段的特征否定掉就可以了。
例一：
Basic to any understanding of Canada in the 20 years after the Second World War is the country’s impressive population growth….
…It appeared that Canada was once more falling in step with the trend toward smaller families that had occurred all through the Western world since the time of the Industrial Revolution.
…
It can be inferred from the passage that before the Industrial Revolution
(A)families were larger.
(B)population statistics were unreliable.
(C)the population grew steadily.
(D)economic conditions were bad.
工业革命之后与工业革命之前两个时间形成对比。既然工业革命之后西方世界的家庭变小了，那么工业革命之前的家庭一定比较大。因此(A)为正确答案。
例二：
Accustomed though we are to speaking of the films made before 1927 as “silent”, the film has never been, in the full sense of the word, silent. From the very beginning, music was regarded as an indispensable accompaniment; when the Lumiere films were shown at the first public film exhibition in the United States in February 1896, they were accompanied by piano improvisations on popular tunes. At first, the music played bore no special relationship to the films; an accompaniment of any kind was sufficient. Within a very short time, however, the incongruity of playing lively music to a solemn film became apparent, and film pianists began to take some care in matching their pieces to the mood of the film.
What can be inferred from the passage about the majority of films made after 1927?
(A) They were truly “silent.”
(B) They were accompanied by symphonic orchestras.
(C) They incorporated the sound of the actors’ voices.
(D) They corresponded to specific musical compositions.
1927年前后形成对比。既然1927年以前的电影只有音乐而没有配音，那么1927年之后的电影一定有。所以(C)为正确答案。
例三：
“…The nineteenth century brought with it a burst of new discoveries and inventions that revolutionized the candle industry and made lighting available to all. In the early-to-mid-nineteenth century, a process was developed to refine tallow (fat from animals )with alkali and sulfuric acid. The result was a product called stearin. Stearin is harder and burns longer than unrefined tallow. This breakthrough meant that it was possible to make tallow candles that would not produce the usual smoke and rancid odor. Stearins were also derived from palm oils, so vegetable waxes as well as animal fats could be used to make candles …”
Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about candles before the nineteenth century?
61;They did not smoke when they were burned.
61;They produced a pleasant odor as they burned.
61;They were not available to all.
61;They contained sulfuric acid.
问题：关于19世纪以前的蜡烛，从第一段可以推出下列哪一点?
这道题的题干中有“19世纪以前”这一时间，由此可见它属于“时间对比推理”思路。原文首句指出：“…19世纪带来了大量新发现和发明，使蜡烛业发生了革命性的变化，所有人都能用蜡烛照明。” 根据“时间对比推理”思路，由于19世纪以前的情况与19世纪形成对比，而19世纪所有人能用蜡烛照明，那么在19世纪之前，并非所有人都能用上蜡烛。第三个选项 “They were not available to all”表达了这一意思，为正确答案。
3.集合概念推理
集合概念推理也可以称之为百分比推断，它指的是在一个集合中，包含两个相对的方面，共同构成一个大的集合。一方所占的比例减少意味着另一方所占比例的增加;反之，一方所占的比例增加意味着另一方所占比例的减少。根据这一思路，可以由集合中一方的数量变化推断另一方的消减。
例一：
A folk culture is small, isolated, cohesive, conservative, nearly self-sufficient group that is homogeneous in custom and race, with a strong family or clan structure and highly developed rituals. …Unaltered folk cultures no longer exist in industrialized countries such as the United States and Canada….
By contrast, a popular culture is a large heterogeneous group, often highly individualistic and constantly changing.
22.What does the author imply about the United States and Canada?
(A) They value folk cultures.
(B) They have no social classes.
(C) They have popular cultures.
(D) They do not value individualism.
原文谈到folk culture 和popular culture两种 文化 ，它们之间形成对比。既然美国和加拿大不再存在folk culture，那么它们就有popular culture。因此(C)为正确答案。
例二：
Both the number and the percentage of people in the United States involved in nonagricultural pursuits expanded rapidly during the half century following the civil war, with some of the most dramatic increases occurring in the domains of transportation, manufacturing, and trade and distribution.
What can be inferred from the passage about the agricultural sector of the economy after the Civil War?
(A) New technological developments had little effect on farmers.
(B) The percentage of the total population working in agriculture declined.
(C) Many farms destroyed in the war were rebuilt after the war.
(D) Farmers achieved new prosperity because of better rural transportation.
文中指出：非农业人口的数量和比例都增加了。由此可知农业人口的数量和比例下降了。所以(B)为正确答案。
托福阅读：推理题例题解题方法
托福阅读题型：推理题例题解题方法：
. Inference questions 推理题
推理题的标志是在题干中出现infer/imply/suggest/indicate/most likely 这样的词汇，它和细节题属于同源题目，都需要定位并且根据文中信息来选择答案。与细节题不同的是，推理题在找到原文中定位点之后考察的是学生对于文中信息的 总结 概括，或者反向推理的能力。我们来看一道例题，
It should be obvious that cetaceans-whales, porpoises, and dolphins-are mammals. They breathe through lungs, not through gills, and give birth to live young. Their streamlined bodies, the absence of hind legs, and the presence of a fluke3 and blowhole4 cannot disguise their affinities with land-dwelling mammals. However, unlike the cases of sea otters and pinnipeds (seals, sea lions, and walruses, whose limbs are functional both on land and at sea), it is not easy to envision what the first whales looked like. Extinct but, already fully marine cetaceans are known from the fossil record. How was the gap between a walking mammal and a swimming whale bridged? Missing until recently were fossils clearly intermediate, or transitional, between land mammals and cetaceans.
Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about early sea otters?
○It is not difficult to imagine what they looked like
○There were great numbers of them.
○They lived in the sea only.
○They did not leave many fossil remains.
首先我们来对题目的出题范围进行定位，题干的blowhole可以作为定位词汇，定位到原文的第四句话：“However, unlike the cases of sea otters and pinnipeds (seals, sea lions, and walruses, whose limbs are functional both on land and at sea), it is not easy to envision what the first whales looked like.”在这句话里交代了“unlike the casess of sea otters”，即与sea otters不一样的是，whales的陈述是：it is not easy to envision what the first whales looked like.即，不容易看出第一头鲸长什么样子。而sea ottter是和鲸鱼相反，所以选择A选项，即不难看出第一头sea otter长什么样子。所以实际上，这种题目虽然叫做推理题，但是并不需要同学们在做题的时候推的过远，基本考察的还是对原文信息概括和总结的能力。
托福阅读题型之推理题的解题方法你了解了吗?我相信这次举例说明多多少少都能够帮助到你。最后希望大家能够好好的复习托福阅读，做好新托福考试当中的第一部分。
托福阅读推理题中的类比逻辑关系
很多同学最近一直和我抱怨，托福阅读中的推理题好难啊，很多题目的正确选项在文中都找不到，说好的忠于原文，说好的不用多想，不用为作者分忧解难呢?这时候我会偷笑，因为你们在托福阅读考试流程里碰到的是细节题的升级版本—─推理题!我们平时在阅读教学中一直和同学强调，阅读要忠于原文，不要大开脑洞，所有答案均出现在原文中。唯独有一种题目即推理题，需要学生不仅在文中找到相关依据，还要根据这个依据走一步推理的过程，才能得出答案。
今天就想和大家分享一下阅读推理题中涉及到的一种逻辑推理关系 — 类比关系，此类逻辑关系一般出现在对比类的文段中。即文章中出现A,B两个比较对象， A与B有相同特征，于是我们可以根据A的特证来推断B也有相同的特征。举个例子：像小明一样，小红爱吃西瓜，于是乎我们可以从这句话里推断出不仅小红爱吃西瓜，小明也爱吃。接下去，我们就来看看这种逻辑关系在推理题中的应用。
Paragraph 1: When it comes to physiology, the leatherback turtle is, in some ways, more like a reptilian whale than a turtle. It swims farther into the cold of the northern and southern oceans than any other sea turtle, and it deals with the chilly waters in a way unique among reptiles.
What can be inferred about whales from paragraph 1?
A . They are considered by some to be reptiles.
B. Their bodies are built in a way that helps them manage extremely cold temperatures.
C .They are distantly related to leatherback turtles.
D .They can swim farther than leatherback turtles.
这道题目，题干问我们根据第二段的内容我们可以对鲸鱼作出何种推断，于是乎我们根据解题技巧快速回到文中搜索定位词whales, 找到以下这句话 ”the leatherback turtle is, in some ways, more like a reptilian whale than a turtle.” 这句话告诉我们leatherback turtle更像爬行的whales, 虽然此句没有直接提到whales的特征，但我们可以根据刚刚提到的类比关系做一步逻辑推断啊。既然leatherback turtle很像whales, 那么leatherback turtle的特征也应该就是whales的特征，因此我们只要找到leatherback turtle的描述信息即可发现whales的特征。原文最后一句话提到， leatherback turtle会游到寒冷的南北海洋并且有特殊的处理冰水的能力。于是乎我们可以得出whales也有相同特征。答案对应B选项。
再来看一道稍难的题目吧
Buck rubs also have a scent. These odors make buck rubs an important means of olfactory communication. Forehead rubbing by male deer on buck rubs presumably sends a great deal of information to other members of the same species. The presence of many well-marked rubs is indicative of older, higher-status males being in the general vicinity rather than simply being a crude measure of relative deer abundance in a given area. The information conveyed by the olfactory signals on a buck rub make it the social equivalent of some auditory signals in other deer species, such as trumpeting by bull elk.
What can be inferred from paragraph 4 about the trumpeting of bull elk?
A.Trumpeting by higher-status bull elk signals their presence to other members of their species.
B.Bull elk need to combine trumpeting with olfactory signals to covey information about their identity.
C.Trumpeting alerts white-tailed deer to the presence of bull elk in their vicinity.
D.Trumpeting provides a better measure of deer presence in a given area than buck rubs do.
此题问我们，根据第四段我们可以对trumpeting of bull elk做出怎样的推断。根据关键词trumpeting of bull elk我们快速找到原文最后一个单词。既然是出现在文章的最后位置，那我们只好去往前推了。而前句又提到了一个我们非常熟悉的逻辑关系—─类比关系。来看这句话 The information conveyed by the olfactory signals on a buck rub make it the social equivalent of some auditory signals in other deer species, such as trumpeting by bull elk.这句话告诉我们buck rub发出的olfactory signal和trumpeting of bull elk发出的auditory signal有相同的社会作用。根据前文我们知道buck rub可以反映年长雄鹿在鹿群里的社会地位。于是乎我们便可以做进一步推理，即trumpeting of bull elk也应该有相似地功能。
我想，只要我们的同学能够熟练掌握这种逻辑推理方法，将来一定可以避免在做这类推理题时常常出现的无从下手的困境。
怎么做好托福听力里的举例目的题？
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智课网有冷毅老师讲授的托福听力课程， 相信会对你关于托福听力方面的问题解惑有所帮助。
新托福听力考试的题型可以粗略分为主旨题、细节题、重听题三大类，并且三种题目在每个听力段落(讲座或对话)中的分布都呈现明显的规律：一般情况下，主旨题在第一题的位置出现，重听题有可能出现在最后一题或两题的位置(但并不一定每个段落都有重听题)，中间的题目是细节题。
细心的同学可能会发现，有一种细节题出现得特别频繁，它们的提问形式一般是这样的：
(1)Why does the professor mention…?
(2)Why does the man/woman talk about…?
(3)The professor talks about…. What points does he/she want to make?
这种题目考什么呢?一般考的是讲座中的教授提到某个事物或者举某个例子的目的何在。当我们打开听力原文，去寻找题目对应的句子时，往往会发现这样的题目对应的出题句一般在老师讲课中举例的前后。可题目问的通常不是老师所举例子中的具体细节，而是举例目的。这种题目(下文称作“举例目的题”)容易导致大家丢分，我们来分析一下它的出题思路、考察方式、解题技巧。
首先，举例目的题的出现和老师在一般讲座中的说话习惯有关。
老师在讲话中提出一个观点时，为避免说话内容的空洞抽象，经常会用不少细节、例证对观点作进一步佐证及阐释。这其实是好的习惯，能让说话内容具体详实，同时也解释了为什么好的托福独立口语答案一定是有“specific
details and
examples”的。但请记住，老师举例也好，罗列细节也好，其目的并非仅仅是举例及罗列细节而已，而是要为说明观点服务，即说话的重心永远在举例之前所提出的观点上。细节和例证只是supporting
information。
但是由于细节和例证在讲话内容中所占篇幅较大，而且内容丰富，充斥着各种细节甚至故事情节，所以相对而言更容易引起我们的听觉注意。最直观的感受是很多考生听完一个“观点+例证”的段落后，脑海中和草稿纸上全是例证中提到的各种信息，比如一件事情的时间、地点、人物、起因、经过、结果，抑或是事物的名称、颜色、位置等等琐碎的信息，可至于老师先前提出的观点，倒只剩下了模糊的印象。而考试题目一般针对的恰恰是老师举例的目的，这样一来大家便容易遗漏重要信息。
当考生看到题目想不起来答案时，一般的做法是转而仔细看各个选项，试图借助选项的帮助，在模糊的记忆中寻找似乎听到的只字片语。但老奸巨猾的出题人，往往会利用考生的这种习惯，在错误选项中设置考生明显听到了的词或词组，以吸引考生选择错误答案。如此一来，很多考生便容易在举例目的题上失分。
解决这一问题的办法是，当在讲座中听到老师举例或者罗列细节时，立即建立对其接下来讲话内容的预期，而不是在讲话者罗列细节的过程中集中精力记录琐碎细节。当讲话内容出现总结性的语句时，集中精力听懂总结性语句，并且适当地做笔记。
托福听力的学术讲座都是经过精心设计、编写、朗读的文章。通过对大量听力真题原文的分析和总结，我们发现在很多情况下，被考察到的举例目的题对应的原文往往具有一定的特征：讲话人会在提出观点后进行举例，举例结束以后往往会以某种方式引起听众的注意，接下来进行总结。而讲座中“老师试图引起听众的注意”从某种程度上来说可以理解为“出题人试图引起考生的注意”，相当于给出一个出题信号。当我们经过训练，能足够敏感地捕捉到这些信号时，就降低了遗漏重要信息的几率。
常见的“出题信号”有：
well, now, you know等语气词;
明显、刻意的停顿;
老师的自问自答(答案的内容就是对举例的总结);
其他表示引起听众注意的声音信号。
【例一：TPO12-Lecture1-Q9】
听力原文：
Now a telomere is a highly repetitious and genetically meaningless sequence
of DNA, what we were calling junk DNA. But it does have an important purpose.
It’s sort of like the plastic tip on each end of a shoelace. It may not help you
tie your shoe but that little plastic tip keeps the rest of the shoelace, the
shoe string from unraveling into weak and useless threads. Well, the telomeres
at the ends of chromosomes seem to do about the same thing―protect the genes,
the genetically functional parts of the chromosome from being damaged.
译文：
呃…，端粒是一段高度重复、没有遗传意义的DNA序列，也就是我们通常所说的“垃圾DNA”。但它却有一个非常重要的作用――像是鞋带两头的塑料片，可能它们不能帮你系上鞋带，但能保持鞋带的其他部分不散成柔软无用的丝线。……嗯，染色体两端的端粒似乎也有同样的作用，也就是保护具有遗传功能的基因，以防止其受到损坏。
刚才这段听力原文是对染色体端粒的介绍，大家能看到，老师通过举了一个鞋带的例子来说明端粒的作用。原文中有很多细节，比如塑料片、鞋带、丝线等等，如果听力反应不够快或是没有完全听懂，很可能会搞得云里雾里。但在听力中能很明显地听到一个表停顿和调整的语气词“well”，后面的句子是对例证的总结：端粒的作用就是保护DNA。在整个段落中，考生只需要对众多细节有一个大概的印象即可，不需要详细记录，但需要把总结句完全听懂，并进行适当记录。针对本段的考题如下：
9. Why does the professor mention shoelaces?
A. To point out that chromosomes are arranged in pairs.
B. To describe the coiled shape of a chromosome.
C. To illustrate how chromosomes are protected from damage.
D. To explain how chromosomes are joined before dividing.
答案选C，to illustrate how chromosomes are protected from damage，是对原文protect
the genes, the genetically functional parts of the chromosome from being
damaged的同义改写。这符合听力考题正确选项的特征――对应原文，并且一般对原文进行适当改写或同义转述。
【例二：TPO5-Lecture1-Q7】
听力原文：
Have you ever heard the one about alligators living in New York sewers? The
story goes like this: a family went on vacation in Florida and bought a couple
of baby alligators as presents for their children, then returned from vacation
to New York, bringing the alligators home with them as pets. But the alligators
would escape and find their way into the New York sewer system where they
started reproducing, grew to huge sizes and now strike fear into sewer workers.
Have you heard this story? Well, it isn’t true and it never happened. But
despite that, the story has been around since the 1930s. Or how about the song
“Twinkle, twinkle little star”, you know, “twinkle, twinkle, little star, how I
wonder what you are.” Well, we’ve all heard this song. Where am I going with
this? Well, both the song and the story are examples of memes. And that’s what
we would talk about, the theory of memes.
译文：
你们听说过那个关于住在纽约下水道里的鳄鱼们的故事吗?故事大概是这样的：一家人去佛罗里达州度假，给孩子们带回来几只鳄鱼宝宝做礼物，然后带着几只鳄鱼回到了纽约的家中当宠物。但是后来鳄鱼们溜走了，钻进了纽约的地下管道系统，开始生长繁衍，长成庞然大物，还把管道工们吓得屁滚尿流。听过这个故事吗?呵呵，这当然不是真的，从来没发生过。但尽管如此，这个故事从20世纪30年代开始便一直在流传。呃，那么，你们听过《小星星》这首歌吗?――“一闪一闪亮晶晶，满天都是小星星……”我们都听过这首歌……我要说什么来着……?这首歌和这个故事都是米姆(meme，可以自行复制传播的文化基因)的例子，今天我们就来探讨一下米姆的理论。
但愿在考生们听鳄鱼的故事和老师唱歌的时候，不要奋笔疾书!冗长的例子之后，老师居然还唱了起来(在讲座听力中，老师真的有唱歌哦)，真是天雷滚滚。这些例子占据大量篇幅，但只是为后面的总结句――“今天我们来探讨米姆理论”做铺垫，它们作为supporting
information，对我们解题并不重要。在老师一句自问自答“我今天要说什么来着”(明显是出题方引起考生注意的信号)之后，大家一定要打起精神，听清后面这句话。虽然同所举例子相比篇幅实在太小――只有一句话而已，但它才是解题的关键。针对本段的考题如下：
7. Why does the professor tell the story about alligators?
A. To explain the difference between true and false stories
B. To draw an analogy between alligator reproduction and cultural
transmission
C. To give an example of a piece of information that functions as a
meme
D. To show how a story can gradually change into a song
答案选C，to give an example of a piece of information that functions as a
meme，是对原文both the song and the story are examples of memes. And that’s what we
would talk about, the theory of memes.的同义改写。
再来看以下几道例题(“考题信号”用粗斜体标出)：
【例三：TPO6-Lecture3-Q8】
听力原文：
Say you have three friends, their car runs out of gas on the highway. John
gets upset. Mary remains calm. Teresa takes charge of handling the situation.
And let’s say, both John and Mary defer to her leadership. They call you to
explain what happen. And when John tells you he got mad, you’re not surprised,
because he always gets frustrated when things go wrong. Then he tells you how
Teresa took charge, calmed him down, assigned tasks for each person and got them
on their way.
Again, you’re not surprised. It’s exactly what you’d expect.
Well, you need to know your characters, like you know your friends.
试题：
8. The professor discusses an example of three friends who run out of gas.
What point does he use the example to illustrate?
A. Writers should know their characters as well as they know their
friends.
B. Writers should create characters that interact in complex ways.
C. Friends do not always behave the way we expect them to behave.
D. Friends’ behavior is often more predictable than fictional characters’
behavior.
答案：A
点评：“say”有“比方说”的意思，之后所举的例子可谓情节跌宕起伏、一波三折、满是细节。但考生只需要有印象“讲座中提到过一个修车的例子”即可，对答题有帮助的句子只有
“well”一词之后的这句“you need to know you characters, like you know your
friends”，答案是对它的同义改写：Writers should know their characters as well as they know
their friends.
【例四：TPO4-Lecture1-Q10】
听力原文：
What’s interesting is that studies have been done that suggest that the
animal’s environment may play a part in determining what kind of behavior it
displays.
For example, there’s a bird, the “wood thrush,” anyway, when the “wood
thrush” is in an attack-escape conflict, that is, it’s caught between the two
urges to escape from or to attack an enemy, if it’s sitting on a horizontal
branch, it’ll wipe its beak on its perch. If it’s sitting on a vertical branch,
it’ll groom its breast feathers.
The immediate environment of the bird, its immediate, um, its relationship
to its immediate environment seems to play a part in which behavior will
display.
试题：
10. Why does the professor mention the wood thrush?
A. To contrast its displacement activities with those of other animals
species
B. To explain that some animals display displacement activities other than
grooming
C. To point out how displacement activities are influenced by the
environment
D. To give an example of an animal that does not display displacement
activities
答案：C
点评：for example后提到的两种鸟均为举例中的supporting
details，不需要重点做笔记。考生应关注的是举完例子之后的总结句。答案即是对总结句的改写。考试时听力原文无法像阅读文章那样给人直观的分段的视觉印象，但能通过信号词等感觉出语意的转折。
本文介绍的是针对特定题型的听力技巧，要求考生具有一定的听力基本功。希望以后有机会和大家探讨提高听力基本功的“听写-跟读-听读”三步法。
托福阅读利用因果逻辑词解题
托福阅读实际上有许多做题技巧的，利用因果逻辑词解题就是其中一种，下面我给大家分享一下具 体操 作 方法 ，希望对你们有所帮助。
托福阅读如何利用因果逻辑词快速定位解题?
审题
首先通过审题，利用因果逻辑词能确定是因果类事实信息题，比如下面的题干：
1. According to paragraph 6, why might the puzzling questions about the paintings never be answered?
2. According to paragraph 2, sculptors in the Italian Renaissance stopped using cannonballs in bronze statues of horses because
3. According to the passage, which of the following is one of the reasons that tunas are in constant motion?
4. According to paragraph 5, which of the following is a factor responsible for the greater air turbulence in urban environments?
通过why, because, reasons, response for这些词( 短语 )，可以确定原文中会有相应的因果逻辑句(群)的表述。接下来我们只需要从原文中找出因句果逻辑表述的句(群)，通过分析逻辑承接对象，匹配选项找出正确答案。
实战练习
例1.(tpo23p1q5)Paragraph 3
The burning of fuel, such as by cars, is not the only source of this increased heat. Two other factors contribute to the higher overall temperature in cities. The first is the heat capacity of the materials that constitute the city, which is typically dominated by concrete and asphalt. During the day, heat from the Sun can be conducted into these materials and stored—to be released at night. But in the countryside materials have a significantly lower heat capacity because a vegetative blanket prevents heat from easily flowing into and out of the ground. The second factor is that radiant heat coming into the city from the Sun is trapped in two ways: (1) by a continuing series of reflection among the numerous vertical surfaces that buildings present and (2) by the dust dome, the cloudlike layer of polluted air that most cities produce. Shortwave radiation from the Sun passes through the pollution dome more easily than outgoing longwave radiation does; the latter is absorbed by the gaseous pollutants of the dome and reradiated back to the urban surface.
5. According to paragraph 3, why do materials in the countryside have a lower heat capacity than materials in cities do?
○ The countryside in the Sun is the only important source of heat.
○ Construction materials in the city are not as good at keeping buildings warm as they are in the countryside.
○ In the countryside the solar heat that flows into the ground flows out again quickly.
○ Countryside vegetation prevents heat from being trapped in the ground.
· 分析
通过原文找出因果逻辑词我们发现有两处：
第一处“Two other factors contribute to the higher overall temperature in cities.”
第二处“But in the countryside materials have a significantly lower heat capacity because a vegetative blanket prevents heat from easily flowing into and out of the ground.”
细节题陷阱中有一种叫做偷换概念，需要考生们仔细审题，题干问的是“why do materials in the countryside have a lower heat capacity than materials in cities do?
第一处表达的是“the higher overall temperature in cities”的原因，显然不是我们要找的答案;
第二处说的是“in the countryside materials have a significantly lower heat capacity”，很明显答案在第二处，匹配选项答案是 D.
实战练习
例2.(OG: Lascaux Cave Painting)Paragraph 6
Perhaps so much time has passed that there will never be satisfactory answers to the cave images, but their mystique only adds to their importance. Certainly a great art exists, and by its existence reveals that ancient human beings were not without intelligence, skill, and sensitivity.
11. According to paragraph 6, why might the puzzling questions about the paintings never be answered?
○ Keeping the paintings a mystery will increase their importance.
○ The artists hid their tools with great intelligence and skill.
○ Too many years have gone by since the images were painted.
○ Answering the questions is not very important to scholars.
· 分析
这道细节题本身不难，但是出错率很高，很多学生选择A，为什么?因为C选项和原文“but their mystique only adds to their importance.”表达的意思一样。
细节题选的是符合题干的选项，也即是问什么答什么。比如我问张三有多高?张三说我很帅，张三确实帅但是不是我要的答案。细节题中很具有迷惑性的选项叫“答非所问”，同学们一定要细心，回到本题，题干问“why might the puzzling questions about the paintings never be answered?”，题干给的是结果，让我们找原因，扫读原文发现“Perhaps so much time has passed that there will never be satisfactory answers to the cave images，其中“that there will never be satisfactory answers to the cave images”表达的意思等于题干“the puzzling questions about the paintings never be answered”，很明显“so much time has passed”就是我们找的答案，确定正确答案选C。
实战练习
例3.(tpo7p1q7) Paragraph 4:
The time had come to formulate a hypothesis. The investigators theorized that about 20 million years ago, the Mediterranean was a broad seaway linked to the Atlantic by two narrow straits. Crustal movements closed the straits, and the landlocked Mediterranean began to evaporate. Increasing salinity caused by the evaporation resulted in the extermination of scores of invertebrate species. Only a few organisms especially tolerant of very salty conditions remained. As evaporation continued, the remaining brine (salt water) became so dense that the calcium sulfate of the hard layer was precipitated. In the central deeper part of the basin, the last of the brine evaporated to precipitate more soluble sodium chloride (salt). Later, under the weight of overlying sediments, this salt flowed plastically upward to form salt domes. Before this happened, however, the Mediterranean was a vast desert 3,000 meters deep. Then, about 5.5 million years ago came the deluge. As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting, the Strait of Gibraltar, where the Mediterranean now connects to the Atlantic, opened, and water cascaded spectacularly back into the Mediterranean. Turbulent waters tore into the hardened salt flats, broke them up, and ground them into the pebbles observed in the first sample taken by the Challenger. As the basin was refilled, normal marine organisms returned. Soon layer of oceanic ooze began to accumulate above the old hard layer.
7. According to paragraph 4, which of the following was responsible for the evaporation of the Mediterranean's waters?
○ the movements of earth's crust
○ the accumulation of sediment layers
○ changes in the water level of the Atlantic Ocean
○ changes in earth's temperature
· 分析
通过题干中 “responsible for”确定考察的是因果逻辑，定位到本段第三句话，但 句子 前后并没有找到明显的因果逻辑词，然后继续通读往下读，发现怎么读都觉得没有正确答案同时又浪费了很多时间。
在这里，给大家补充一个不常见的因果逻辑的另类表达，即and引导的两个句子也隐含因果逻辑关系。比如”He is too old and he can’t walk,”,仔细体会其中的意思“他太老了and不能行走”，蕴含的就是因果逻辑关系。
回到本题“Crustal movements closed the straits, and the landlocked Mediterranean began to evaporate. ”(因为地壳运动封闭了海峡，被陆地包围的地中海也开始蒸发。)如果大家能识别到这层关系，很明显A就是正确选项。
常见因果逻辑词
下面来 总结 一下托福阅读中常见的因果逻辑词，希望同学们能够熟记巧用。
显性：because(of), since, for, as, due to, owing to, In that, so(that), therefore, thus, hence, as a result, consequently...
隐性：cause, lead to, make，render, stimulate, spur, spark, push, motivate, prompt, be responsible for..
托福阅读因果逻辑题如何作答，掌握显性因果逻辑词
一、因果逻辑之句子简化题
一提到因果逻辑，可能大部分考生顿时想到的是句子简化题。因为有相当比例的句子简化题中是有逻辑关系的句子，的确可以先从原句逻辑关系出发，先排除明显逻辑错误的选项，剩下的再进行核对筛选。但我们在运用任何逻辑关系解题的时候可千万别忘了句子主干哦。下面我们看几个例题：
例题 1
The frequency with which certain simple motifs appear in these oldest sites has led rock-art researchers to adopt a descriptive term—the Panaramitee style—a label which takes its name from the extensive rock pavements at Panaramitee North in desert South Australia, which are covered with motifs pecked into the surface.
(A)The oldest rock art sites have simpler motifs than the best known sites of Panaramitee North.
(B)Because motifs primarily associated with the Panaramitee region are common in the oldest sites the term Panaramitee style has become the general term for rock art of this type.
(C)Because the Panaramitee style is so common in the older sites, researchers have described it most extensively.
(D)The motifs carved in the rocky surface of the Panaramitee region make up the oldest form of rock art discovered in Australia.
天啊，这个句子那么长!但提取主干后，句子将变得非常简单：
The frequency had lead rock-art researchers to adopt a descriptive term—the Panramitee style.
我们发现这个句子的谓语动词是 lead to，是个隐性的因果逻辑词。也就是说，本句话最想表达的意思是，某个东西的频繁出现，是研究者们采用 P style 这个术语的原因。
这时我们来看四个选项，A 选项强调的是对比关系，一看就可以排除的炮灰选项。
D 选项的主干是 The motifs make up the oldest form. 跟原句的主干完全不符合，又可排除。
大部分同学都是纠结 B 和 C，而且还不少同学认为这两个选项读完根本就是一个意思, excuse me?!那么接下来我们就得分析下选项中的原因和结果与原句的原因和结构能否对应的上，会不会因果倒置。B 和 C 选项一个最大的区别，就在于 B 选项中 P style 是句子的结果，而 C 选项中 P style 出现在了原因部分。原句的 P style 是句子的结果，所以，正确答案就很明了了，选 B!
咱们再来看另一个例题：
例题 2
However, no group or species can maintain its dominance indefinitely, and when, after over 200 million years, the age of dinosaurs came to a dramatic end about 65 million years ago, mammals began to flourish, evolving from relatively few types of small terrestrial animals into the myriad of diverse species, including bats and whales, that we know today.
(A)The dominance of dinosaurs came to an end 65 million years ago, at which time mammals began to flourish and diversify.
(B)Because no group of species can remain dominant forever, mammals became the dominant group when dinosaurs became extinct.
(C)After being the dominant group for more than 200 million years, the age of dinosaurs came to a dramatic end 65 million years ago.
(D)The diverse group of mammals that we know today, including bats and whales, evolved from small terrestrial forms that had been dominated by dinosaurs.
句首的 However 虽然是个转折逻辑词，但对于这道题而言是没有用的，因为这明显是跟上一句话进行转折，而句子简化题考查的是句内逻辑，而不是句间逻辑。这句话是由 and 连接起来的两个句子，所以不少同学觉得这两句话就是并列关系。
这两个句子的主干信息为 no group or species can maintain its dominance 和 mammals began to flourish. 那么最完美的正确选项应该是肯定要包含这两个主干信息的。
大部分同学是在 A 和 B 之间纠结，觉得 A 呢没毛病，B 也挺对的，但是多了个 because 不太敢选。A 相对于 B 而言，是属于信息残缺的选项，B 选项的信息和原句的信息匹配度更高。
但是 because 如何解释呢?举个简单的例子：
It’s raining outside and I decide to order take-out food.
我们可否理解成因为外面下雨了，所以我决定订外卖?这也是说得通的。所以在个别情况下，两个并列的句子也可以有隐含的因果逻辑关系，看句意而定。这题便是，两个句子的核心内容可理解成，因为没有任何物种可以一直维持统治地位，所以，后来哺乳动物 flourish 了。再通过阅读细节可发现 mammals began to flourish 正是恐龙灭绝之后。所以这时我们再对比一下 A 和 B，B 选项和原句的还原度是比 A 好的。
二、因果逻辑之细节题
因果逻辑其实无处不在，另一个经常考察此逻辑关系的题型是细节题。现在我们来看几个稍微有点没那么明显的因果逻辑的考题。
例题 3
The time had come to formulate a hypothesis. The investigators theorized that about 20 million years ago, the Mediterranean was a broad seaway linked to the Atlantic by two narrow straits. Crustal movements closed the straits, and the landlocked Mediterranean began to evaporate. Increasing salinity caused by the evaporation resulted in the extermination of scores of invertebrate species…Soon layer of oceanic ooze began to accumulate above the old hard layer.
Which of the following was responsible for the evaporation of the Mediterranean's waters?
(A)the movements of earth's crust
(B)the accumulation of sediment layers
(C)changes in the water level of the Atlantic Ocean
(D)changes in earth's temperature
本题题干中看到 responsible for，马上反应到考查的是因果逻辑。不少同学可以快速定位到本段第三句话，但句子中并没有找到明显的因果逻辑词于是不敢判断答案，于是继续往下读，怎么读都觉得没有正确答案同时又浪费了很多时间。
其实这题考的因果逻辑这个考点跟我们上一个句子简化题的例题是很相似的。两个句子并列用 and 连接，但是也有隐含的因果逻辑关系。因为地壳运动封闭了海峡，被陆地包围的地中海也开始蒸发。如果能识别到这层关系，则应该可以秒选 A 了。
例题 4
Medieval Europe gave new importance to reliable time. The Catholic Church had its seven daily prayers, one of which was at night, requiring an alarm arrangement to waken monks before dawn. And then the new cities and towns, squeezed by their walls, had to know and order time in order to organize collective activity and ration space.
Why did the medieval church need an alarm arrangement ?
(A)The alarm warned the monks of discord or strife in the town.
(B)The church was responsible for regulating working hours and market hours.
(C)The alarm was needed in case fires were not put out each night.
(D)One of the church’s daily rituals occurred during the night.
这是个细节题，通过题干可定位到本段第二句话。题目问的是 why，但在原文中不能直接找到 because 或 contribute to 等其他因果逻辑词。但我们在定位准确的前提下，仔细在读读第二句话，发现这个句子有现在分词做状语的成分，而 v-ing 是可以做结果状语的。那么 requiring an alarm arrangement 的前面信息的同义改写便是这道题的正确答案。此题正确答案为 D。
本文仅简单列举了因果逻辑关系在阅读中的几种考法，它还可以出现在推断题，句子插入题中，由于篇幅有限就不一一列举例题了。识别因果逻辑的不同表现形式是可以帮助提高我们的答题效率的一个突破点。回到本文提出的第一个问题，笔者罗列了一些给大家参考一下：
1、显性因果逻辑词：
since, because, because of, thus, hence, as a result, result from, responsible for, due to, so that, consequently, account for, explain, factor, outcome……
2、隐性因果逻辑词：
lead to, stimulate, enable, motivate, encourage, contribute to, trigger, give rise to, induce, affect, damage, impact, depend on, rely on......
学会掌握托福阅读中的逻辑词
关系词从逻辑功能的实现来分类的话，一般可以分为转折(but)、让步(although)、对比(unlike)、并列(and)、递进 (moreover)、举例(for example)、因果(because)、类比(like)和总结(in general)这九类。而从所连接信息的方向来分的话，其实只有两类，第一类是改变方向，包括转折、让步和对比;其余剩下的都是第二类，维持方向。比如，如果听到某人说：“I’d love to go with you，but…”这时我们心里一定都会感觉到这人十有八九去不了了。
而如果他说的是：“I’d love to go with you，and…”那么后面的话至少不会表达出不去的意愿。也就是说，维持方向的关系词连接的前后信息必须是同向的，而改变方向的关系词所连接的信息则应该是反向的。当我们在做题的时候，可能有些句子结构或单词不理解，如果句子中有关系词，那么至少可以帮助我们判断出句意的方向，而有些题目只需要判断出方向其实就能得出答案。下面举两个判断题的例子进行说明。
原文：IPhone is gaining popularity， despite its cost。
题目：IPhone is costly。
题目要我们判断iPhone 是否昂贵，但原文并没有直接给出其价格的高低。可是我们注意到原文句子中含有一个关系词despite，它是属于改变方向的词，也就是说despite前后连接的这两个句子方向得相反。前面说iPhone越来越受欢迎，应该算是件好事，那么后面说到它的价格，显然是不能令人满意的，也就是比较贵，这样才符合句意的逻辑。因此我们马上就可以判断出该题的答案是TRUE。
原文：Baekeland’s invention (Bakelite)， although treated with distain in its early years，went on to enjoy an unparalleled popularity which lasted throughout the first half of thetwentieth century。
题目：Bakelite was immediately welcomed as a practical and versatile material。
这是Test2的12题，题目要我们判断Bakelite是不是马上受到欢迎，原文提到它treated with distain inits early years，但麻烦的是可能会有相当部分的同学不认识distain 这个词，这样似乎就没办法判断出Bakelite在早年被如何对待。但是千万要注意这个句子有一个关系词although，它表示让步，属于改变方向，那么由它连接的两个句子句意得是相反的，这样我们可以试图从已知推未知。后面这句话我们从enjoy，popularity可以得出一个信息，就是 Bakelite在20世纪的前半期一直是受欢迎的，方向是好的，那么前半句treated with distain in its early years必须就要表达出不好的信息，也就是在前几年受到不好的对待，这样才能符合句子逻辑。因此，我们马上就可以做出判断，既然在前几年受到不好的对待，那么Bakelite就不可能马上受到欢迎了，因此该题的答案是FALSE。这样，我们在考试时根本就不用具体去理解distain(指名誉受损)的真正含义，只用判断方向照样能够做对题目。
除了判断题之外，关系词对Summary题也十分有用。Summary是 文章 或部分段落的缩写，有时候某些词同义替换的形式变化比较大，如果只用关键词去查找，很多时候并不容易定位。但是不管词怎么变，逻辑关系一般不变。如果题目中表达出因果关系或转折关系，那么所找到的原文一般也会表达出同样的逻辑关系。这样，我们就可以利用上关系词来帮助一起定位。
比如Test2的30~31题：In Britain， moreover， scientists worried that English had neither the30________ nor the 31________ to express their ideas。这两道题用词去查找并不好定位。但我们也要注意到这两个空有一个关系词词组“neither…nor…”，它们表示并列，并且是否定的并列。通过这点在原文中很容易就注意到有一个信息是：“First， it lacked the necessary technical vocabulary. Second， itlacked the grammatical resources…”其中，“First…， Second…”表达出了两样事物的并列，而lack(缺乏)这个单词则表达出了否定。这样就比较容易能够定位到这两句话并且得出答案是 technicalvocabulary和grammatical resources。
托福口语第一题：如何应对黄金15秒
根据《托福考试官方指南第4版》（以下简称《官方指南》）的要求，考生在45秒时间内要完成"选定对象/确定主旨"、"给出理由"、"提供细节"三个任务。因此，在15秒的准备时间内，考生最起码要选好这个对象（或确定答题主旨），想好相应的两到三个理由，以及对提供的细节心里大概有个数，这样才能保证张口说话时基本的流利程度。可是要在短短15秒内想好这些谈何容易？尤其是当题目涉及的恰好是考生不熟悉的话题的时候，这15秒就极有可能在紧张和纠结中过去了。难怪有考生会抱怨，ETS这个15秒准备时间的设定实在是太不合理了吧，够我干什么用呢？
其实，短暂的答题准备时间更加符合ETS的考查目的。《官方指南》明确指出口语部分考查"学生在学术环境中有效交谈的能力"(p. 17)，而一个有效的交谈过程中是不允许有过长的时间来准备自己的说话内容的。无论是用英语与其他学生讨论学术问题还是参与日常交谈，你脱口而出的内容往往是基于头脑中积淀下来的知识和经验。从这一点来看，要想答好托福口语考试独立任务的部分，考生一定要先准备好话题素材并且有一定的口语表达经验，积淀得多了，看到题目之后就能很快想到用什么样的素材与之对应。也就是说，15秒钟最好不要像挤牙膏一样去想着怎么挤出一些新鲜信息（尤其是在心理压力较大的考场上），而是要从自己已经熟悉的信息中筛选出能够答题的部分，迅速进行整理，使之成为一段连贯合理能够充分论证自己观点的文字。
没错！15秒是用来"整合"的。这样看来，考前准备时必然要建立好这些应该熟悉的信息了，而且根据第一题的答题要求，这些信息应包括"对象信息"、"理由信息"以及"细节信息"。比如题目要你讨论人物素质，你就一定要掌握一些人物素质的英文表达方式（即对象信息）、这种素质重要的理由（理由信息）以及相应的例子或具体体现（细节信息）。对于大部分同学来说，主旨和对象的确立并不是难事，比如说出喜欢相处的人（2012. 1. 14，大陆）、最喜欢的学习场所（2012. 4. 28，大陆）、最钦佩的个人品质（2012. 8. 26，大陆）等等。比较困难的就是迅速准备好理由和细节了，所以，提前整合好理由信息和细节信息是托福口语备考的大任务。下面将详细地介绍这两方面的素材应该如何去准备。
1. 理由信息--你的脑海里有没有"文件夹"？
参加过2012年7月14日大陆考试的同学们应该还记得第一题是这样问的："Among the following three professions, which do you respect the most: photographers, musicians and painters? Explain why."我在辅导学生练习这道题的时候，发现大部分同学都能够很快选出自己最尊敬的专业人士，三选一嘛，没有什么困难的地方。而在陈述理由时就遇到了麻烦。 比如清一色地说这些人非常"talented"，或者干脆说"I want to be a photographer, too"。 这样说的结果往往是：没办法往下讲了。而且根据《官方指南》中三套练习的高分答案展示可以看出，好的答案往往是包含了两个到三个理由的，同学们给出一个理由尚且如此困难，别提再多给一个了。于是我会提醒同学们，你可以说 "Photographers are very brave."接着给细节证明会很容易了，比如你可以说："In the face of wars, disaster or other kinds of danger, photographers still persist in taking pictures in order to keep important moments or present the truth to people"。同学们顿时恍然大悟，"brave"是一个多么简单的词，答题时为什么没有想起来呢？另外，今年还有一道难倒众多同学的题目，2012年10月14日大陆考试第一题："Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of letting students evaluate their professor at the end of the semester." 很多同学在说disadvantages时犯了难，而在提醒他们可以说学生非专业评估人士，所以这样的评估结果会"unreliable"时，同学们就会感叹原来理由是如此明显，自己答题时反应真的好慢！
这一切现象都说明同学们的词汇储备是足够的，只是这些词汇都是零零散散地学到了脑子里，没有章法和顺序，所以在准备答题时没有及时地拿出来运用。这就好比将文件一个一个保存在电脑里，而不是分门别类存放在相应的文件夹中。但是由于人脑的检索速度与效率不可与电脑相提并论，致使我们在提取相关信息的时候颇为费时费力。要想做到事半功倍，即7-8秒时间就能想到两个合理的理由，备考时就一定要将素材分类整理好，在脑海里有秩序地建好文件夹。
分类整理的第一步，是先按照托福口语第一题的常考话题进行一个初始的分类，即人物类、地点类、事物类、经历类以及近些年常考的判断类和建议类。这当然只是最基础的一步，接下来的进一步具体分类就有着极强的应用性了。以人物素材为例，我们可以根据常考的人物对象，如老师、家人、朋友、专业人士、娱乐明星、小说人物等体现出的不同特质来进行分类整理。比如乐嘉的FPA(Four-Colors Personality Analysis)性格色彩学用"红、蓝、黄、绿"四色代替人的性格特征，这就是一种典型的分类整理。我们可以借用这个模式，将托福常考人物特质分为四个类型："温润型"、"外向型"、"才华型"和"励志型"。在"温润型"的文件夹中，我们可以把以下这些词或短语补充进去：affable, kind-hearted, easy-going, patient, considerate, open-minded, 等等, 这些词一般可以形容爷爷奶奶爸爸妈妈老师或者用于展示其他人物温润的一面。在"外向型"文件夹中我们同样可以先放好这些词：sociable, passionate, energetic, generous, hilarious, optimistic, 等等，来修饰具有这些特质的人。"才华型"文件夹里就是各种才华啦，如：knowledgeable, well-read, eloquent, organized, versatile, creative, quick-witted等等，来体现你对某大牛的崇拜之情。而"励志型"当中包含的就是一些重要品质，不一定与才华有关，比如：ambitious, diligent, industrious, perseverant, forward-looking, have team spirit, brave, 等等。当然，这里只是用一些简单词汇举例，如果想使素材更丰富一些，可以增添更多的表修饰的短语或句子。
有了这个较为细致的分类整理，人物类问题的原因部分便可以在短时间内脱口而出。如回答这道题："Describe a person whom you would like to spend time with. Explain why you would like to spend time with this person."（2012. 1. 14 大陆）我们确定对象后，可以迅速对应一下适当的形容词，尽可能在7-8秒内确定原因。比如你喜欢花时间相处的是你的爸爸或妈妈，原因可以锁定在"温润型"文件夹中，然后迅速在头脑中构建出以下答题结构："Because he/she is considerate…. Besides, he/she is an open-minded parent."如果这个对象是一个比较活泼开朗的好朋友，你可以去"外向型"中迅速提取关键词，迅速构建出以下结构："Firstly, he/she is so hilarious…. Plus, I would like to spend time with him/her because he/she is such a generous person."当然，这些文件夹的素材可以产生交叉，比如你选定的对象是一个既渊博又开朗的老师，那么原因可以分别在"外向型"和"才华型"中选取。当然，对于问得更加具体的人物题，这种分类同样适用。再以2012年7月14日大陆考试的第一题为例，即photographers, musicians和painters你最尊敬哪一类，这里无论选择哪一种职业，都可以从"才华型"和"励志型"中选取理由，比如尊敬photographers的理由就可以是"才华型"中的"quick-witted"、"knowledgeable"等等，也可以从"励志型"中迅速找到"brave"、"perseverant"等词。教学经验证明，这样的分类整理可以帮助学生在15秒准备时间内大大提升想出理由的速度，最快的时候甚至读题的瞬间就能构建出两个理由了，如此一来学生便可以充分利用准备的黄金15秒来进一步构思细节。
以上仅是以人物题为例。对于地点类、事物类、经历类、判断类以及建议类的题目，同样要建立更为细致的理由信息文件夹。如地点题可建立"自然环境"、"文化氛围"、"室内装备"、"附加要素（如食物、交通等）"几个类别，然后补充进去相应的词汇短语。此外可以另整理出一类"高频理由"，如"be convenient and efficient"、"be more reliable"、"help to improve one's skills"、"be environmentally friendly"等等，来应付一些辩证判断类的题目。如前面那道让许多同学不知所措的教授评估题，只要曾经整理过这些"高频理由"并经过一段时间的练习之后，拿到题目马上可以给出优点，如"It helps to improve professors' teaching skills"以及一些缺点，如前面提到过的"not reliable"或者"It is not convenient to sort through the results of evaluation because there are so many students involved."这样，仅仅是总结好一些并不复杂的语料素材，无须大量扩充新的长难词汇，就可以帮助我们见到题目后迅速找到合适的理由，迅速构建起基本的思路，有助于充分利用黄金15秒的剩余时间来完成后面的工作。
2. 细节信息--表哥不是万能的
经过分类整理，我们已经可以无压力短时间内确定理由，但根据官方的标准，我们在陈述理由之后还需要具体的细节或例子来支撑。这部分内容占据着答题内容相当的篇幅，所以在15秒准备时间内，就算你无暇组织好细节怎么说，也应该能给出一个大致的方向。短时间内想好这些并不是一项简单的任务，尤其是当话题有些偏难的时候。于是会有不少同学使用"万金油"例子，比如说设定一个关于"表哥"的故事，然后让所有的题目都跟这个表哥的故事扯上关系。可是这样看似聪明的做法并不能换来高分，因为从近几年的机经来看，托福口语第一题的话题是多元化的，涉及学习、课外活动、文化艺术、环保、养生、教育、科技、价值观等等各个方面，一个单一的"万金油"例子是不可能强有力地支撑任何一个话题的。单一"万金油"例子只会帮你在考场上有话可讲，但是论证的质量如何，所说的内容是否符合评分标准，就另当别论了。
那么，数秒之内提供细节的能力应该如何锻炼呢？首先我们要明确一下"细节"或"例子"所指的是什么。《官方指南》明确要求在第一题中，"You should include specific details and/or examples"(p. 167)去支撑理由，而具体怎么操作，《官方指南》也给出了范例，比如167页的例题："Choose a teacher you admire and explain why you admire him or her. Please include specific examples and details in your explanation."在针对这道题的分析当中，《官方指南》指出在说原因时可以说是这位教师表现出了很独特的个人品质，而后面的细节就应该是对此进行描述或者提出相关证据："occasions when you noticed it, the effect it had on you, and so forth"(p. 168)。由此看来，考生在提供具体细节时不一定是要讲一个故事，也可以是具体的现象、场合或影响。根据官方的这种要求，一般可以用两种方法迅速扩展细节：分层法和列举法。
分层法是指先将理由信息缩小到一个更具体的范围，然后再迅速给出细节的方法，这些常用的具体范围可包括"学习"、"生活"、"思想"三方面。一般来讲，理由信息越是抽象越是不容易给出细节。比如说之前2012年1月14日那道人物题--要求考生描述最喜欢花时间相处的人，我们用之前的方法已经很快可以确定对象和理由，但关于人物特征的理由往往会比较抽象，比如有考生会回答这个人是"my father"，原因之一是"He is open-minded"。在这里open-minded的细节如何给出会让考生感到头疼。那么我们先把open-minded这个词分层，比如将其范围缩小到"学习"上，什么样的现象可以证明在"学习"方面是open-mined的呢？这时很多同学就会立即想到"不会因为孩子一次考试不好就责备孩子"这样的实例，而大学生往往也会想到"尊重孩子对自己学习专业的选择"等具体情况。如果将这个词范围缩小到"生活"上，又会有同学马上想到"尊重孩子的兴趣爱好和生活习惯"等等可以举例的角度。照此看来，所谓"思想"上的open-minded也不难猜测了，一般定是与尊重孩子的某一想法有关。同学们在这项练习中往往会发现一个神奇的事实：先分层次，例子竟会如泉水般从头脑中涌出。
列举法则是直接列举出具体的体现，比如要证明"My father is very talented", 则可以直接摆出以下事实："He read a lot of classical literature works in his youth and he can play three kinds of music instruments"。 如要证明"My father is forward-looking",也可以直接陈述以下事例："My father thought it was a smart move to send me to study abroad, so he taught me English when I was little"。列举的事实可以成为分层后的实例，也可以单独使用。两种方法如果都能够熟练掌握或者融会贯通，势必会帮助考生在黄金15秒之内完成基本的准备工作。
以上备考方法的确需要考生付出一定的精力和时间，但是考生们的收获会是巨大的：你不仅会拥有一套你一手建立起来的学习素材，还会收获一个良好的学习习惯。这不仅会使你在托福口语考试方面受益，也会使你在终身的学术学习中受益。所以，这样的努力过程是必须的。正如那句经典所言："你必须非常努力，才能看起来毫不费力"。只要考前能够做好分类整理并进行熟练运用细节技巧，同学们可以在15秒内完成审题、确定主旨、确定两个理由、勾勒大致细节等步骤，甚至还会留出几秒钟组织一下前两句话的语言，这种"毫不费力"的情景的确就发生在我的身边。希望亲爱的同学们在今后考试的黄金15秒中都能准备得毫不费力！
托福阅读如何读懂三种题型的长难句
如果把托福的文章比喻成一座建筑物，“词汇”便是“砖块”，“句子”便是“梁柱”。对于一座建筑物而言少托福例题了一两块砖块并不会造成其倒塌，那么对于一篇文章而言某些单词没看懂也并不影响对于整个篇章的理解托福例题；而作为建筑物的支撑部分，梁柱却会影响该建筑物的稳定性，那么被比作梁柱的句子对于理解一篇文章而言是至关重要的，无法理解长难句会让考生首先降低阅读速度，其次影响篇章理解，最后最致命的影响是相关题型的解决----“句子简化题”，“事实信息题”，“推理题”，因为这三种题型都是在直接或间接地考察学生对于长难句的理解能力。本文将从这三种题型的角度讨论如何解读长难句。
“句子简化题”中的长难句----“先见森林，后见树木”
“森林”代表的是该句话的“结构”，“先见森林”即考生首先应该关注的是该句话最核心的主干；“树木”代表的是该句话具体的“词汇”，那么“后见树木”指考生应该在托福例题了解主干之后才关注词汇，并且只是一些key words.
1 因果结构
例题1 (OG: Desert Formation)：
The extreme seriousness of desertification results from the vast areas of land and the tremendous numbers of people affected, as well as from the great difficulty of reversing or even slowing the process.
10. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
A. Desertification is a significant problem because it is so hard to reverse and affects large areas of land and great numbers of people.
B. Slowing down the process of desertification is difficult because of population growth that has spread over large areas of land.
C. The spread of deserts is considered a very serious problem that can be solved only if large numbers of people in various countries are involved in the effort.
D. Desertification is extremely hard to reverse unless the population is reduced in the vast areas affected.
解题步骤：
1. 观察题干，发现表示隐形因果的短语result from
2. 浏览选项，发现A和B选项含有因果关系
3. 分析原句：原句中“因”：1). 大量受到影响的土地vast areas of land; 2). 大量受到影响的人口tremendous numbers of people; 3). 很难去减慢或者颠覆沙漠化过程reverse or slow the process; 原句中“果”：沙漠化是一个严重serious的问题；分析A选项：“因”：1). reverse process; 2). affect large areas of land; 3). affect great numbers of people; “果”：沙漠化是一个significant的问题
2 让步转折结构
例题2 (TPO 17: Animal Signals in the Rain Forest)：
In the green-to yellow lighting conditions of the lowest levels of the forest, yellow and green would be the brightest colors, but when an animal is signaling, these colors would not be very visible if the animal was sitting in an area with a yellowish or greenish background.
7. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
A. When an animal is signaling in an area with green-to yellow lighting condition, its signal will not be visible if the background is brightly lit.
B. In the lowest levels of the forest, an animal''s signals are not easily seen unless there is a yellowish or greenish background.
C. In the green-to-yellow lighting conditions at the lowest levels of the forest, only signals that are themselves green or yellow will be bright enough to be seen in most areas.
D. Although green and yellow would be the brightest colors near the forest floor, these colors would make poor signals whenever the forest background was also in the green-to-yellow range.
解题步骤：
1. 分析题干，发现表转折的逻辑关系词but; 前半句“yellow and green会是最亮的颜色在低层森林中”；后半句“但是如果动物所处的background是yellow or greenish, 那么动物发出该种颜色的信号将不明显”
2. 分析选项：只有D选项含有表让步转折的逻辑词although, 进而分析句意：前半句：“虽然green and yellow在森林底层颜色最亮”；后半句：“在环境也是green to yellow的情况下，这些颜色将是poor signals”
3. 原句与选项在句子的结构上符合：转折结构；在语义上符合：lowest level of the forest = forest floor, Not very visible = poor signals
3 比较结构
例题3 (TPO 17: Animal Signals in the Rain Forest)：
In the second case, pollinators (insects, birds) obtain food from the flowering plant, and the plant has its pollen distributed and seeds dispersed much more efficiently than they would be if they were carried by the wind only.
9. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
A. The relationship between flowering plants and pollinators provides pollinators with food and flowers
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