托福阅读TPO13(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:TypesofSocialGroups
为了帮助大家备考托福阅读，提高成绩，下面我给大家带来托福阅读TPO13(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:Types of Social Groups，希望大家喜欢!
托福阅读原文
Life places us in a complex web of relationships with other people. Our humanness arises out of these relationships in the course of social interaction. Moreover, our humanness must be sustained through social interaction—and fairly constantly so. When an association continues long enough for two people to become linked together by a relatively stable set of expectations, it is called a relationship.
People are bound within relationships by two types of bonds: expressive ties and instrumental ties. Expressive ties are social links formed when we emotionally invest ourselves in and commit ourselves to other people. Through association with people who are meaningful to us, we achieve a sense of security, love, acceptance, companionship, and personal worth. Instrumental ties are social links formed when we cooperate with other people to achieve some goal. Occasionally, this may mean working with instead of against competitors. More often, we simply cooperate with others to reach some end without endowing the relationship with any larger significance.
Sociologists have built on the distinction between expressive and instrumental ties to distinguish between two types of groups: primary and secondary. A primary group involves two or more people who enjoy a direct, intimate, cohesive relationship with one another. Expressive ties predominate in primary groups; we view the people as ends in themselves and valuable in their own right. A secondary group entails two or more people who are involved in an impersonal relationship and have come together for a specific, practical purpose. Instrumental ties predominate in secondary groups; we perceive people as means to ends rather than as ends in their own right. Sometimes primary group relationships evolve out of secondary group relationships. This happens in many work settings. People on the job often develop close relationships with coworkers as they come to share gripes, jokes, gossip, and satisfactions.
A number of conditions enhance the likelihood that primary groups will arise. First, group size is important. We find it difficult to get to know people personally when they are milling about and dispersed in large groups. In small groups we have a better chance to initiate contact and establish rapport with them. Second, face-to-face contact allows us to size up others. Seeing and talking with one another in close physical proximity makes possible a subtle exchange of ideas and feelings. And third, the probability that we will develop primary group bonds increases as we have frequent and continuous contact. Our ties with people often deepen as we interact with them across time and gradually evolve interlocking habits and interests.
Primary groups are fundamental to us and to society. First, primary groups are critical to the socialization process. Within them, infants and children are introduced to the ways of their society. Such groups are the breeding grounds in which we acquire the norms and values that equip us for social life. Sociologists view primary groups as bridges between individuals and the larger society because they transmit, mediate, and interpret a society's cultural patterns and provide the sense of oneness so critical for social solidarity.
Second, primary groups are fundamental because they provide the settings in which we meet most of our personal needs. Within them, we experience companionship, love, security, and an overall sense of well-being. Not surprisingly, sociologists find that the strength of a group's primary ties has implications for the group's functioning. For example, the stronger the primary group ties of a sports team playing together, the better their record is.
Third, primary groups are fundamental because they serve as powerful instruments for social control. Their members command and dispense many of the rewards that are so vital to us and that make our lives seem worthwhile. Should the use of rewards fail, members can frequently win by rejecting or threatening to ostracize those who deviate from the primary group's norms. For instance, some social groups employ shunning (a person can remain in the community, but others are forbidden to interact with the person) as a device to bring into line individuals whose behavior goes beyond that allowed by the particular group. Even more important, primary groups define social reality for us by structuring our experiences. By providing us with definitions of situations, they elicit from our behavior that conforms to group-devised meanings. Primary groups, then, serve both as carriers of social norms and as enforcers of them.
托福阅读试题
1.The word “complex”(Paragraph 1)in the passage is closest in meaning to
A.delicate
B.elaborate
C.private
D.common
2.According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true of a relationship?
A. It is a structure of associations with many people.
B. It should be studied in the course of a social interaction.
C. It places great demands on people.
D. It develops gradually overtime.
3.The word endowing in the passage(Paragraph 2)is closest in meaning to
A.leaving
B.exposing
C. providing
D. understanding
4.Which of the following can be inferred about instrumental ties from the author's mention of working with competitors in paragraph 2?
A. Instrumental ties can develop even in situations in which people would normally not cooperate.
B.Instrumental ties require as much emotional investment as expressive ties.
C. Instrumental ties involve security, love, and acceptance.
D.Instrumental ties should be expected to be significant.
5.According to paragraph 3, what do sociologists see as the main difference between primary and secondary groups?
A.Primary groups consist of people working together, while secondary groups exist outside of work settings.
B. In primary groups people are seen as means, while in secondary groups people are seen as ends.
C. Primary groups involve personal relationships, while secondary groups are mainly practical in purpose.
D.Primary groups are generally small, while secondary groups often contain more than two people.
6.Which of the following can be inferred from the author's claim in paragraph 3 that primary group relationships sometimes evolve out of secondary group relationships?
A.Secondary group relationships begin by being primary group relationships.
B.A secondary group relationship that is highly visible quickly becomes a primary group relationship.
C.Sociologists believe that only primary group relationships are important to society.
D. Even in secondary groups, frequent communication serves to bring people into close relationships.
7.The phrase “size up” in the passage(Paragraph 4)is closest in meaning to
A.enlarge
B.evaluate
C. impress
D. accept
8.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence(Paragraph 5)in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
A.Sociologists think that cultural patterns establish connections between the individual and the larger society.
B.Sociologists believe that individuals with a sense of oneness bridge the gap between society and primary groups.
C.Sociologists think primary groups contribute to social solidarity because they help maintain a society's cultural patterns.
D.Sociologists believe that the cultural patterns that provide social solidarity arise as bridges from primary groups.
9.This passage is developed primarily by
A.drawing comparisons between theory and practice
B.presenting two opposing theories
C.defining important concepts and providing examples of them
D.discussing causes and their effects
10.The word “deviate” in the passage(Paragraph 7)is closest in meaning to
A.detract
B.advance
C.select
D.depart
11.According to paragraph 7, why would a social group use shunning?
A.To enforce practice of the kinds of behavior acceptable to the group
B.To discourage offending individuals from remaining in the group
C.To commend and reward the behavior of the other members of the group
D.To decide which behavioral norms should be passed on to the next generation
12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. People who do not live alone, for example, tend to make healthier life choices and develop fewer pathologies than people who live by themselves. Where would the sentence best fit?
Second, primary groups are fundamental because they provide the settings in which we meet most of our personal needs. ■【A】Within them, we experience companionship, love, security, and an overall sense of well-being. ■【B】Not surprisingly, sociologists find that the strength of a group's primary ties has implications for the group's functioning. ■【C】For example, the stronger the primary group ties of a sports team playing together, the better their record is. ■【D】
13.Directions: Complete the table below by selecting three answer choices that are characteristics of primary groups and two answer choices that are characteristics of secondary groups. This question is worth 3 points.
A.Developing socially acceptable behavior
B. Working together against competitors
C.Experiencing pressure from outside forces
D.Viewing people as a means to an end
E.Existing for practical purposes
F.Providing meaning for life situations
G.Involving close relationships
1 )
Primary Groups
A B C D E F G
2 )
Secondary Groups
A B C D E F G
托福 阅读答案
1.complex复杂的，所以B的elaborate正确。原句说生活把我们放在什么样的与其他人的关系网中，因为很多人，所以关系网比较复杂正确。A的delicate脆弱的，纤细的，美味的;C的私人和D的普通都不靠谱
2.以relationship做关键词定位至最后一句，注意relationships不能做关键词，因为多次重复出现。原句说当这种association持续的时间足够长以至于两个人之间已经形成了稳定的expectation，就叫relationship，所以D说随时间develop正确。A的many people，B的study，C的demand都没说
3.endow赋予，捐助，所以provide提供，供给正确。原句说有时候我们与其他人合作只是做完某事，却没有任何significance，猜到这个词应该是有的意思，只有provide和leave表示有，但leave是剩下，所以不对。至于B暴露D理解完全不对
4.以competitor做关键词定位至倒数第二句，说偶尔这意味着与竞争对手合作而非竞争，而这个this意味着这句话跟前一句有联系。前一句说instrumental ties是我们在与别人合作达到某种目的的时候形成的，这与A说的通常不合作的人也有形成instrumental完全一样。B没说，C与原文的第三句说反，D与原文最后一句说反
5.分别以primary group和secondary group做关键词定位至第二句和第四句，分别说了两个group，primary的是比较亲密的，secondary是因为事先某种共同的目的才形成的，所以答案是C。A错，不是用work来区分这两个group的;两者同样不是以人数区分的，所以D错;C的end不end是原文在后面才说的，也不能区分这两个group
6.以evolve out of做关键词定位至倒数第三句，但这句话跟问题几乎是完全一样的，所以不是答案。往后看，this标示着上下句之间有联系。下句说这种evolve发生在工作背景下，接着说同事之间可以通过share各种东西变成非常亲密的朋友，也就是secondary变primary 的一个例子，所以正确答案是D。A说反;B和C均没说而且C有违常识
7.size up估量，估计，所以正确答案是B的evaluate。原句说面对面交流使得我们能够怎么样别人，评价别人是正确的。A的扩大别人明显是不对的。原文没说接受别人，也没说给别人留下印象，所以都不对
8.原文的结构是sociologist把primary group看成blabla，因为blabla。只有C表达了原因，A缺了原文的很多信息，错;B和D都缺失了原文很重要的because部分，所以都是错的
9.问本文的组织结构，问全文的题应该多关注各段的开头。原文首先提出了两个关系，然后又说expressive tie和instrumental tie，最后又说了primary group产生的条件。叙述两类关系用的笔墨明显不等，所以不是对比，所以B不对，A的理论和实践原文完全没说，而且也说到了对比，也不对;D的因果是原文完全没说的。作者定义了两个group和两个tie，所以C说定义概念是对的，而且作者在定义概念之后都有解释，所以C正确
10.deviate偏离，出轨，所以正确答案是D的depart偏离。原句说一旦奖励不行，group的成员可以威胁排斥那些怎么样规则的人，肯定是对规则不好的人，所以advance和中性的select不对;detract表示减损或者转移，跟depart所表示的离经叛道是两个意思，所以不对
11.以shunning做关键词定位至第四句，说人们会用shunning吧离经叛道的人弄回来，但没给出原因。这句中的for example说明是上句的例子，前面一句说如果奖励不行，我们就排斥那些不守规矩的人，所以一切都是为了强化规则，答案是A。B说不鼓励冒犯group当中的人，原文没说冒犯人;C的reward和D的next generation都没说
12.两个过渡点，分别是连词for example和名词healthier life choices，根据for example排除C和D，因为原文也有for example，而正常说话的时候两个for example是不连续使用的;而且根据healthier life choices跟原文中sense of well-being的同义替换也可以确定是A或者B，但A点后的them与前文衔接紧密，所以答案是B
13.此题不典型，因为作者用了 文章 的第四到七段较大篇幅讲primary，却只用了第二和第三段的部分讲到secondary，而且本文对于两个group的叙述存在交叉，交叉的部分主要在第二三两段，但这两段的叙述也是先primary后secondary，所以顺序性还是有的。第三段的四五两句分别对应existing和viewing两个答案，所以这两个答案属于secondary;第二段和第三段的第三句对应providing答案，第三段第二句对应involving答案，最后一段的第三句和第四句对应developing选项，结合11题的答案很容易选出这项
托福阅读译文
我们和他人一起生活在一个复杂的关系网中。我们的人性就产生于这种社会性的互动关系中，与此同时，我们的人性也必须通过经常性的社会互动才能得以维持。当两个人在比较稳定的期望值下的交流时间足够长并且形成一种联系时，这种联系就可以称为关系。
人与人之间的关系可以分为两种：情感纽带和工具纽带。情感纽带是当我们做情感投资并致力于他人的一种社会关系。通过和对我们来说十分重要的人交流从而得到安全感、爱情、认同、友谊以及个人价值等一系列情感。工具纽带是我们为达到某种目的而与他人进行合作时产生的社会联系方式。有些时候，这也许意味着变相与竞争者共事。更多的时候我们没有发展出任何更有意义的关系而只是简单的与他人合作达成目的。
社会学家基于情感纽带与工具纽带区别，将社会群体划分成两类：主要群体和次要群体。一个主要群体包含两个以上成员，他们彼此之间的关系是直接的,亲密的,聚合性的。情感纽带在主要社群中起主导作用，我们把人们自身看做目标和人们自己权利的价值。次要群体也是由两个以上成员组成，他们因非个人关系聚到一起都是为了一个特定的,实际的目标而努力。工具纽带在次要群体中起了重要的作用。我们把人自身看做是人目标的途径而不是人们自己权利的目标。有时主要群体的关系也会在次要群体中演化而来。这种现象在工作环境中时有发生。工作伙伴在共事过程中会彼此分享抱怨、玩笑、八卦以及满足感，由此也会发展出亲近的关系。
很多情况也会增加主要群体出现的可能性。首先，群体的规模非常重要。我们很难去了解那些散布在大群体中的某个人。而在小群体中我们有更多机会发起联系并与他人建立关系。第二，面对面的交流能让我们更好地了解彼此。与他人近距离接触和交谈可以更好地交流情感和思想。第三，频繁持续的交流也能增加我们发展主要群体的可能性。我们与他人的联系会随着我们与他人的互动时间而加深，并逐渐演化出连锁的习惯和兴趣。
主要群体是人与人之间乃至整个社会的基础。首先，主要群体在社会化进程中至关重要。在主要群体里，婴儿与孩童可以学习处世方式。这种群体是我们社会生活必备规范和价值的培养地。社会学家将主要群体比作独立个体与整个社会之间的桥梁，因为它能传达,调解并解读一个社会的 文化 模式，提供一种归属感有助于社会团结。
其次，主要群体之所以是基础是因为它能提供满足我们大多数人需求的环境。在主要群体中，我们可以收获友情、爱情、安全感以及所有幸福的情感。社会学家发现一个群体的主要纽带的强弱往往暗示着这个群体的功能，这不足为奇。例如，一个体育团队的主要群体纽带越强，他们就越容易取得好成绩。
第三，主要群体之所以是基础还因为他们充当了强有力的社会调控工具。群体中的成员掌控并分配能够维持我们生存的极其重要的资源。如果奖励方式不当，群体内成员就会通过拒绝或威胁来摒弃那些背离群体规范的人，例如，一些社会群体采取规避 措施 (人可以留在群体中，但禁止其他成员与其交流)，从而将特定群体中逾矩的个体慢慢同化与他人一致。更重要的是，主要群体通过构筑我们的 经验 来定义社会现实。他们根据我们的行为来定义我们的处境，以遵循群体分配的意义。因此，主要群体既是社会规范的载体同时也是社会规范的实施者。
托福阅读文章文段里面几个重要的部分
环球教育小编和大家说说托福阅读文章的类型和备考方法。
托福阅读文章类型
托福阅读的文体一般可分为说明(exposition)、议论(argumentation)和史实(historical)三类，而架构则常常会表现为分类(classification)、比较(comparison/contrast)、因果(cause/effect)、解疑(problem/solution)四种之一。由于每篇新托福考试阅读文章所对应的题型都至少会包含一道涉及对文章总体架构把握的多分值问题，上述文体方面的信息需要引起考生备考期间的充分注意。
托福阅读的3或5篇700单词左右的文章全都节选自高校本科水平的教材，通常为针对某一学术领域的介绍。一般不做任何修改，从而能够更好地被用于评估考生在学术英语氛围下的阅读能力，因而所涉及的词汇量相对较大，但对于一些专业性较强的词汇仍会给出注释。主题广泛，但并不要求考生对其非常熟悉，这是由于所有被考察的信息都包括在文章之中。
阅读方法
从某种意义上来讲，词汇量的大小是托福阅读理解高分的基础和关键。如果词汇量没有达到基本要求(五千以上)，即使你有“宝典”在手，也只能命丧托福考试的“毒招”之下。所以，以牺牲词汇量为代价的技巧练习简直是一种无用功。
所谓主动阅读文章是指不能像一般的阅读那样完全被动地接受信息，而应该不断的进行思考和预测;所谓关键部位，主要是每一段的开头和结尾部分。由于TOEFL的阅读理解文章全部选自于正式出版物，文章的逻辑(logic)结构非常完整(complete)和严谨(rigorous)，而且出现的逻辑模式也是屈指可数。若大家经过系统的训练，考生的预测可以做到非常准确的程度。这样，通过阅读文章的几处关键部位，就能很快地把握整个文章的结构和内在的逻辑关系，也就解决了问题的四分三左右了。
更有效和迅速的办法是读完题干之后，就在脑子反映出一个模糊的或者是不完整的答案，然后直接在选项中寻找接近的答案进行判断。这种能力必须在平时的训练和讲解中逐渐养成和加强，而不是什么技巧之类的东西可以替代。平时还还是要多加练习。
主动地阅读文章的关键部位。采取“结构扫描”法分配阅读具体一篇文章。所谓结构，即文章的骨架。托福阅读文章是纯学术文章，是北美学生在大学里天天都能接触到的教科书风格的文章，这些文章涉及人文社科各个方面。正确的阅读文章的方法应该是把文章首句先吃透，因为文章首句往往就是文章的主题。然后把首段的其它句子尽快略读，文章其他段落采取同样的方法阅读。各段落其他的句子一般来说都是用来说明各个段落的主题句的，没有必要每个句子都彻底看个明白。有时候，段落中个别句子理解难度大，而不涉及考题，在此句停留无疑是白白浪费时间。所以，采取“结构扫描”法，意味着以最快的方式了解文章大意，从而正确引导下一步做题，而不至于出现大方向的理解错误。
备考积累
对长难句的把握要从熟悉长难句的成分，包括复杂修饰成分、插入语或同位语、倒装等;长难句的结构类型入手，然后对托福阅读长难句进行分析练习，练习到可以快速找到句子主干，在阅读中句子理解困难不大的水平。对文章的快速把握要从对文章标题理解并从标题中对文章有初步预测开始，接着考生需要分清文章重点和次重点，可以详略得当读文章，最后考生要学会猜测文章生词含义。总之要尽量扫清阅读障碍。对于托福阅读题型的机制掌握需要考生对托福阅读十大题型进行分类专项练习，可以直接选择TPO阅读题目对题型出题点、问法、一般步骤进行把握。
以上就是环球教育小编给大家提供的托福阅读备考建议，希望对你有所帮助。
托福阅读TPO16(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:TradeandtheAncientMiddleEast
TPO是我们常用的托福模考工具，对我们的备考很有价值，下面我给大家带来托福阅读TPO16(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:Trade and the Ancient Middle East。
托福阅读原文
Trade was the mainstay of the urban economy in the Middle East, as caravans negotiated the surrounding desert, restricted only by access to water and by mountain ranges. This has been so since ancient times, partly due to the geology of the area, which is mostly limestone and sandstone, with few deposits of metallic ore and other useful materials Ancient demands for obsidian (a black volcanic rock useful for making mirrors and tools) led to trade with Armenia to the north, while jade for cutting tools was brought from Turkistan, and the precious stone lapis lazuli was imported from Afghanistan. One can trace such expeditions back to ancient Sumeria, the earliest known Middle Eastern civilization. Records show merchant caravans and trading posts set up by the Sumerians in the surrounding mountains and deserts of Persia and Arabia, where they traded grain for raw materials, such as timber and stones, as well as for metals and gems.
Reliance on trade had several important consequences. Production was generally in the hands of skilled individual artisans doing piecework under the tutelage of a master who was also the shop owner. In these shops differences of rank were blurred as artisans and masters labored side by side in the same modest establishment, were usually members of the same guild and religious sect, lived in the same neighborhoods, and often had assumed (or real) kinship relationships. The worker was bound to the master by a mutual contract that either one could repudiate, and the relationship was conceptualized as one of partnership.
This mode of craft production favored the growth of self-governing and ideologically egalitarian craft guilds everywhere in the Middle Eastern city. These were essentially professional associations that provided for the mutual aid and protection of their members, and allowed for the maintenance of professional standards. The growth of independent guilds was furthered by the fact that surplus was not a result of domestic craft production but resulted primarily from international trading; the government left working people to govern themselves, much as shepherds of tribal confederacies were left alone by their leaders. In the multiplicity of small-scale local egalitarian or quasi-egalitarian organizations for fellowship, worship, and production that flourished in this laissez-faire environment, individuals could interact with one another within a community of harmony and ideological equality, following their own popularly elected leaders and governing themselves by shared consensus while minimizing distinctions of wealth and power.
The mercantile economy was also characterized by a peculiar moral stance that is typical of people who live by trade—an attitude that is individualistic, calculating, risk taking, and adaptive to circumstances. As among tribespeople, personal relationships and a careful weighing of character have always been crucial in a mercantile economy with little regulation, where one's word is one's bond and where informal ties of trust cement together an international trade network. Nor have merchants and artisans ever had much tolerance for aristocratic professions of moral superiority, favoring instead an egalitarian ethic of the open market, where steady hard work, the loyalty of one's fellows, and ntrepreneurial skill make all the difference. And, like the pastoralists, Middle Eastern merchants and artisans unhappy with their environment could simply pack up and leave for greener pastures—an act of self-assertion wholly impossible in most other civilizations throughout history.
Dependence on long-distance trade also meant that the great empires of the Middle East were built both literally and figuratively on shifting sand. The central state, though often very rich and very populous, was intrinsically fragile, since the development of new international trade routes could undermine the monetary base and erode state power, as occurred when European seafarers circumvented Middle Eastern merchants after Vasco da Gama's voyage around Africa in the late fifteenth century opened up a southern route. The ecology of the region also permitted armed predators to prowl the surrounding barrens, which were almost impossible for a state to control. Peripheral peoples therefore had a great advantage in their dealings with the center, making government authority insecure and anxious.
托福阅读试题
1.According to paragraph 1, why has trade been so important throughout the history of the Middle East
A.The rare and valuable metals and stones found in Middle Eastern deserts have always been in high demand in surrounding areas.
B.Growing conditions throughout the Middle East are generally poor, forcing Middle Eastern people to depend on imported grain.
C.Many useful and decorative raw materials cannot be found naturally in the Middle East but are available from neighboring regions.
D.Frequent travel, due to limited water supplies in the Middle East, created many opportunities for trade with neighboring societies.
2.The word “repudiate” in the passage (paragraph 2) is closest in meaning to
A.respect
B.reject
C.review
D.revise
3.According to paragraph 2, how did Middle Eastern shop owners treat their workers?
A.Workers were ranked according to their skill level, with the most-experienced artisans becoming partial owners of the shop.
B.Shop owners treated different workers differently depending on how much the workers had in common with their masters.
C.Workers were bound to their masters by unbreakable contracts that strictly defined the terms of their partnership.
D.The shop owner worked alongside the workers and often considered them partner and members of the family.
4.The author includes the information that surplus was not a result of domestic craft production but resulted primarily from international trading (in passage 3) in order to
A.support the claim that the mode of production made possible by the craft guilds w very good for trade
B.contrast the economic base of the city government with that of the tribal confederacies
C.provide a reason why the government allowed the guilds to be self-controlled
D.suggest that the government was missing out on a valuable opportunity to tax the guilds
5.According to paragraph 3, all of the following are true of the Middle Eastern craft guilds EXCEPT:
A.The guilds were created to support workers and to uphold principles of high-quality craft production.
B.Each guild was very large and included members from a broad geographic area.
C.The leaders of the guilds were chosen by popular vote.
D.All guild members were treated as equals.
6.The word “consensus” in the passage (paragraph 3) is closest in meaning to
A.authority
B.responsibility
C.custom
D.agreement
7.According to paragraph 4, which of the following was NOT necessary for success in themercantile economy?
A.Good business sense
B.Reliable associates
C.Family wealth
D.Constant effort
8.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 4? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
A.Tribes people were comfortable forming personal relationships with merchants, who, like them, were bound by their promises to one another.
B.Because trade was not formally regulated, merchants were careful about whom they trusted and often conducted business with people they knew personally.
C.While trade among merchants relied somewhat on regulation, among tribes people trade was based on personal relationships and careful character evaluation.
D.Because tribes people were bound only by their promises to one another, personal relationships were formed only after careful weighing of character.
9.The word “ethic” in the passage (paragraph 4) is closest in meaning to
A.set of moral principles
B.division of labor
C.economic system
D.test of character
10.According to paragraph 4, what choice did Middle Eastern merchants and artisans have that many other people have not had?
A.If they were unhappy in the mercantile environment, they could draw on personal connections to find a different kind of work.
B.They were allowed to assert their opinions without having to listen to aristocratic professions of moral superiority.
C.Following the example of the pastoralists, they could demand, and receive, better working conditions.
D.If they didn't like their environment, they could move somewhere else.
11.The word “intrinsically” in the passage (paragraph 5) is closest in meaning to
A.fundamentally
B.surprisingly
C.consequently
D.particularly
12.In paragraph 5, why does the author mention the new trade route opened up by Vasco da Gama's fifteenth century voyage around Africa?
A.To provide evidence that European seafarers took every opportunity to bypass Middle Eastern merchants
B.To present an instance in which Middle Eastern states lost money and power because of their reliance on long-distance trade
C.To argue this new route became necessary when European seafarers wanted to avoid Middle Eastern states whose central power had begun to erode
D.To explain how da Gama helped European traders avoid the dangerous predators prowling the areas surrounding Middle Eastern cities
13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? For one thing, it created a demand for finished goods to be sold both locally and abroad.
Paragraph2: Reliance on trade had several important consequences. ■【A】Production was generally in the hands of skilled individual artisans doing piecework under the tutelage of a master who was also the shop owner. ■【B】In these shops differences of rank were blurred as artisans and masters labored side by side in the same modest establishment, were usually members of the same guild and religious sect, lived in the same neighborhoods, and often had assumed (or real) kinship relationships. ■【C】The worker was bound to the master by a mutual contract that either one could repudiate, and the relationship was conceptualized as one of partnership. ■【D】
14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
Since ancient times. reliance on trade has shaped the culture and organizational structure of Middle Eastern societies.
A.Persian and Arabian merchants traveled great distances to sell their finished goods at the marketplaces of ancient Sumeria.
B.Revenue from trade was unevenly distributed, causing Middle Eastern societies to be characterized by growing distinctions in wealth and power.
C.Qualities that were valued in the mercantile economy included individualism, hard work, loyalty, and the willingness to take risks.
D.As production increased, centralized control over production also increased, leading in turn to more-centralized control over fellowship and worship.
E.Crafts were produced by skilled artisans working in close, egalitarian relationships with their masters and other fellow guild members.
F.The stability of Middle Eastern governments was threatened by their lack of control over international trade patterns and over their own peripheral territories.
托福 阅读答案
1.问trade为什么主要，这段第一句就说是mainstay，第二句就给出了原因，说他们没有这个没有那个，所以答案是C。A说中东有material，明显与原文说反;B的中东很穷和D的frequent travel原文都没说。
2.repudiate与……断绝关系，驳斥，所以reject正确。原句说师徒之间是一种契约关系，这个契约任意一方都可以怎么样，下一句又说是一种伙伴关系，也就是没有强制性，所以答案是任何一方都可以撕毁，所以答案是reject。respect和review都不靠谱;revise单纯的改变也不是作者的意思。
3.以shop owners做关键词定位至第二句，但第二句没有回答问题，所以往后看，后一句说老板和工人之间的界限被blur模糊了，而且他们同吃同住一起工作，所以答案是D。A的workers rank原文没说;B说对不同工人态度不同，与原文相反;C的unbreakable contract与最后一句相反。
4.修辞目的题，先看修辞点所在 句子 ，只是一个例子，放弃;往前看，说有行业协会互助互惠，但这明显也还是一个例子，所以看本段中心句，说这种生产方式倾向于促进自律平等的同业协会的发展，所以答案是C。
5.EXCEPT题，排除法。A的support workers和uphold principles做关键词定位至第二句，原文的mutual aid and protection等于support workers，maintaneance of professional standards等于uphold principles，A正确，不选;B的geographic area原文没有对应点，错，选;C的vote做关键词定位至最后一句，正确，不选;D的equals做关键词定位至最后一句，正确，不选。
6.consensus合约，同意，协定，所以D的agreement正确。原句说人与人之间的关系非常和谐，他们听他们领导的话，通过什么实现自律并尽量减小贫富差距，减小差距就是为了求得某种一致，所以答案是agreement。A权威，B责任，C习惯，都不靠谱。
7.EXCEPT题，排除法。A与倒数第二句的entrepreneurial skill同义替换，正确，不选;B与倒数第二句的loyalty of one’s fellow同义替换，正确，不选;C在原文中无对应点，错，选;D与倒数第二句的steady hard work同义替换，正确，不选。
8.原句的结构是在什么什么人当中，什么和什么很重要，在什么什么环境下。所以B正确。A混淆原文概念，原文说在当时的环境下只能靠promise形成商业网络，人们和认识的人做生意，不是人们靠promise做生意;C错，原文说没有regulation，C说反;D错，因为only原文从来没说过。
9.ethic道德规范，伦理，所以A正确。原文说商人和工匠们不能忍受moral superiority，更喜欢open market的什么，既然不喜欢moral superiority，那么他们喜欢的东西也应该跟道德有关，所以答案是A，而B劳力分工C经济体系和D性格测试完全不靠谱。
10.以many other people做关键词定位至最后一句，说如果不满意当地的商业环境，中东商人会像游牧民族一样迁移到其他地方，这是其他人做不到的，所以答案是D。
11.intrinsically本质的，内部的，固有的，所以答案A正确。原句说尽管中部的国家很富裕而且人口稠密，但他们是怎么样脆弱的，由于新的国际贸易路线可以决定金融资本所在的地方，并且能够侵蚀国家的力量，都能侵蚀了，所以应该是脆弱的，但前文又说人口密集并且富裕，所以这些都是表象，所以答案是A的fundamentallly基础;B吃惊C结果D特别都没反应这种内外的差别，所以都不对。
12.修辞目的题，先把本句读清楚，说新的国际贸易路线可以决定金融资本所在的地方，并且能够侵蚀国家的力量，接着就说就像达伽马发现了新航路之后欧洲人绕过了中东，所以说达伽马的事儿是为了证明航线的发现能够削弱国家的力量，所以答案是B。
13.两个过渡点，连词for one thing和名词finished goods，既然是for one thing，就应该放在比较靠前的位置上，所以A或者B有可能，而放在A正好对应之前的several important consequences;而且finished goods与原文当中的production对应，所以A正确。
14.Persian选项是原文第一段中的一个细节，不选;Revenue选项与原文第三段最后一句说反，是贫富差距缩小，不是扩大，不选;Qualities选项对应第四段，正确;As选项与原文第三段第一句相反，不选;Crafts选项对应原文第二段和第三段的最后一句，正确;The stability选项对应原文第五段第一句，正确。
托福阅读译文
自从中东地区的商旅们成功跨越周围的戈壁，只有水路和山峦还是障碍时，贸易就成为了中东地区城市经济的主要支柱。这种情况(贸易是主要支柱)从古至今都是如此，一部分原因是中东地区的地质环境——多为沙石和石灰岩，金属矿藏和 其它 有用材料很少。古代对黑曜石(一种火山岩，可以用来制作镜子和工具)的需求引发了(中东地区)与北方的亚美尼亚之间的贸易;用作切削工具的玉石从土耳其斯坦购买;而稀有贵重的琉璃青金石是从阿富汗地区进口。探险活动最早可以追溯至古苏美尔——已知最早的中东文明。记录显示商队和贸易站由古苏美尔人在周围山区及古波斯和阿拉伯的沙漠地区建立。
过于依赖贸易造成了一些重大影响。生产工作一般在师傅也是店主的监视下，由熟练的工匠计件完成。在这些店铺中，阶级差异并不明显，因为工匠和店主同在一个相对舒适的环境中共事，通常有着相同的宗教信仰，而且又是街坊邻里，彼此之间还很有可能(没准真的)是亲戚关系。工人和店主双方具有劳务关系，任一方都有权终止，这是合作关系中的一种。
这种生产模式有助于自主管理制度的发展，在中东城市里意识形态上秉持人人平等的手工行会比比皆是。他们实质上是专门提供互助且保护组织成员的协会组织，同时注重维持行业标准。独立行会不断增加，是因为剩余价值的产生并非由于国内生产，而是主要来自于国际间的贸易活动。政府允许劳动人民自主管理，这和部落首领让牧羊者们离群索居一样。在当地，团体、信仰以及生产方面的小型平等主义团体或类似平等主义的组织在这种自由放任的环境里遍地开花，和谐平等的团体中，成员之间相互影响，追随着他们自己选举的领导人，在缩小财富和权力差距的同时通过分享意见进行自我管理。
商品经济也通过靠贸易为生的商人所秉持的特定道德立场表现出来。他们具有独立自主、精于计算、敢于冒险和随遇而安的优秀品质。在部落成员之间，人际关系和谨言慎行的品质在监管不严的商品经济中至关重要,商品经济里人们出口成契，诚信基础上的非正式联系形成了一个国际贸易网络。从没有商人和工匠对贵族职业的道德优越感如此宽容，这很好地促进了开放市场中的平等主义，人们辛勤工作，忠诚跟随，具备企业家精神非常重要。而且，这和畜牧文明类似，中东的商人和工匠们若对自己所处的环境不满意，简单收拾一下就可迁移到一个更加丰茂的牧场——纵观历史，如此随性而为的行为在其他多数文明中是无法想象的。
对远距离贸易的依赖也意味着伟大的中东帝国得以建立在这片飘忽不定却又无比真实的沙土之中。帝国中部尽管非常富足繁盛，但本质上脆弱不堪，因为新的国际贸易线路的出现会动摇经济基础并腐蚀国家权力。就在15世纪晚期达伽马绕过非洲开辟南部航线以后，欧洲的水手们便绕过中东商人改走南部航线了。该地区的生态环境也允许武装“捕食者”在周围的荒漠潜行，几乎很难被帝国控制。外围的人借此得到一个应对中央帝国的绝好机会，这让政府惴惴不安。
苏美尔人(也译作苏默)，是历史上两河流域(底格里斯河和幼发拉底河中下游)早期的定居民族，他们所建立的苏美尔文明是整个美索不达米亚文明中最早，同时也是全世界最早产生的文明。
托福阅读TPO16(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:Trade and the Ancient Middle East相关 文章 ：
托福阅读TPO10(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:ChinesePottery
托福TPO是托福备考小伙伴们最重要的参考资料，并且这个是在备考时候一定要认真多多练习，托福TPO是非常重要的希望大家一定要重视起来，我为广大的托福考生整理了托福阅读TPO10(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:Chinese Pottery，下面就来跟我一起来看下面精彩内容吧!
托福阅读原文
China has one of the world's oldestcontinuous civilizations—despite invasions and occasional foreign rule. Acountry as vast as China with so long-lasting a civilization has a complexsocial and visual history, within which pottery and porcelain play a majorrole.
The function and status of ceramics inChina varied from dynasty to dynasty, so they may be utilitarian, burial,trade-collectors', or even ritual objects, according to their quality and theera in which they were made. The ceramics fall into three broadtypes—earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain—for vessels, architectural itemssuch as roof tiles, and modeled objects and figures. In addition, there was animportant group of sculptures made for religious use, the majority of whichwere produced in earthenware.
The earliest ceramics were fired toearthenware temperatures, but as early as the fifteenth century B.C.,high-temperature stone wares were being made with glazed surfaces. During theSix Dynasties period (AD 265-589), kilns in north China were producinghigh-fired ceramics of good quality. White wares produced in Hebei and Henanprovinces from the seventh to the tenth centuries evolved into the highlyprized porcelains of the Song dynasty (AD. 960-1279), long regarded as one ofthe high points in the history of China's ceramic industry. The tradition ofreligious sculpture extends over most historical periods but is less clearlydelineated than that of stone wares or porcelains, for it embraces the oldcustom of earthenware burial ceramics with later religious images andarchitectural ornament. Ceramic products also include lead-glazed tomb modelsof the Han dynasty, three-color lead-glazed vessels and figures of the Tangdynasty, and Ming three-color temple ornaments, in which the motifs wereoutlined in a raised trail of slip—as well as the many burial ceramics producedin imitation of vessels made in materials of higher intrinsic value.
Trade between the West and the settled andprosperous Chinese dynasties introduced new forms and different technologies.One of the most far-reaching examples is the impact of the fine ninth-centuryAD. Chinese porcelain wares imported into the Arab world. So admired were thesepieces that they encouraged the development of earthenware made in imitation ofporcelain and instigated research into the method of their manufacture. Fromthe Middle East the Chinese acquired a blue pigment—a purified form of cobaltoxide unobtainable at that time in China—that contained only a low level ofmanganese. Cobalt ores found in China have a high manganese content, whichproduces a more muted blue-gray color. In the seventeenth century, the tradingactivities of the Dutch East India Company resulted in vast quantities ofdecorated Chinese porcelain being brought to Europe, which stimulated andinfluenced the work of a wide variety of wares, notably Delft. The Chinesethemselves adapted many specific vessel forms from the West, such as bottleswith long spouts, and designed a range of decorative patterns especially forthe European market.
Just as painted designs on Greek pots mayseem today to be purely decorative, whereas in fact they were carefully andprecisely worked out so that at the time, their meaning was clear, so it iswith Chinese pots. To twentieth-centuryeyes, Chinese pottery may appear merely decorative, yet to the Chinese the formof each object and its adornment had meaning and significance. The dragonrepresented the emperor, and the phoenix, the empress; the pomegranateindicated fertility, and a pair of fish, happiness; mandarin ducks stood forwedded bliss; the pine tree, peach, and crane are emblems of long life; and fishleaping from waves indicated success in the civil service examinations. Onlywhen European decorative themes were introduced did these meanings becomeobscured or even lost.
From early times pots were used in bothreligious and secular contexts. The imperial court commissioned work and in theYuan dynasty (A.D. 1279-1368) an imperial ceramic factory was established atJingdezhen. Pots played an important part in some religious ceremonies. Longand often lyrical descriptions of the different types of ware exist that assistin classifying pots, although these sometimes confuse an already large andcomplicated picture.
托福阅读试题
1. The word “status” in thepassage(Paragraph 2)is closest in meaning to
A.origin
B. importance
C.quality
D.design
2.According to paragraph 2, which of thefollowing is true of Chinese ceramics?
A. The function of ceramics remained thesame from dynasty to dynasty.
B.The use of ceramics as trade objects isbetter documented than the use of ceramics as ritual objects.
C. There was little variation in qualityfor any type of ceramics over time.
D.Some religious sculptures were made usingthe earthenware type of ceramics.
3.The word “evolve” in the passage(Paragraph3)is closest in meaning to
A. divided
B.extended
C.developed
D. vanished
4.Which of the sentences below bestexpresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence(Paragraph 3) inthe passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leaveout essential information.
A.While stone wares and porcelains arefound throughout most historical periods, religious sculpture is limited to theancient period.
B.Religious sculpture was created in mostperiods, but its history is less clear than that of stone wares or porcelainsbecause some old forms continued to be used even when new ones were developed.
C.While stone wares and porcelains changedthroughout history, religious sculpture remained uniform in form and use.
D.The historical development of religioussculpture is relatively unclear because religious sculptures sometimes resembleearthenware architectural ornaments.
5.Paragraph 3 supports all of the followingconcerning the history of the ceramic industry in China EXCEPT:
A.The earliest high-fired ceramics were ofpoor quality.
B. Ceramics produced during the Tang andMing dynasties sometimes incorporated multiple colors.
Earthenware ceramics were produced in Chinabefore stone wares were.
D.The Song dynasty period was notable forthe production of high quality porcelain ceramics.
6.The word “instigate” in thepassage(Paragraph 4)is closest in meaning to
A.improved
B.investigated
C. narrowed
D.caused
7.According to paragraph 4, one consequenceof the trade of Chinese ceramics was
A. the transfer of a distinctive bluepigment from China to the Middle East
B.an immediate change from earthenwareproduction to porcelain production in European countries
C.Chinese production of wares made for theEuropean market
D.a decreased number of porcelain vesselsavailable on the European market
8.The word “whereas” in thepassage(Paragraph 5)is closest in meaning to
A. while
B. previously
C.surprisingly
D.because
9.In paragraph 5, the author compares thedesigns on Chinese pots to those on Greek pots in order to
A.emphasize that while Chinese pots weredecorative, Greek pots were functional
B.argue that the designs on Chinese potshad specific meanings and were not just decorative
C.argue that twentieth-century scholars arebetter able to understand these designs than were ancient scholars
D.explain how scholars have identified themeaning of specific images on Chinese pots
10.Which of the following is mentioned inparagraph 5 as being symbolically represented on Chinese ceramics?
A.Chinese rulers
B. love of homeland
C. loyally to friends
D. success in trade
11.Paragraph 5 suggests which of thefollowing about the decorations on Chinese pottery?
A.They had more importance for aristocratsthan for ordinary citizens.
B.Their significance may have remainedclear had the Chinese not come under foreign influence.
C.They contain some of the same images thatappear on Greek pots
D.Their significance is now as clear totwentieth century observers as it was to the early Chinese.
12.The word “these” in the passage(Paragraph6)refers to
A.religious ceremonies
B. descriptions
C.types of ware
D.pots
13. Look at the four squares [■]thatindicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Wherecould the sentence best fit? Foreign trade was also responsible for certaininnovations in coloring.
Trade between the West and the settled andprosperous Chinese dynasties introduced new forms and different technologies.One of the most far-reaching examples is the impact of the fine ninth-centuryAD. Chinese porcelain wares imported into the Arab world. ■【A】So admiredwere these pieces that they encouraged the development of earthenware made inimitation of porcelain and instigated research into the method of theirmanufacture. ■【B】From the Middle East the Chinese acquired a blue pigment—a purifiedform of cobalt oxide unobtainable at that time in China—thatcontained only a low level of manganese. Cobalt ores found in China have a highmanganese content, which produces a more muted blue-gray color. ■【C】In theseventeenth century, the trading activities of the Dutch East India Companyresulted in vast quantities of decorated Chinese porcelain being brought toEurope, which stimulated and influenced the work of a wide variety of wares,notably Delft. ■【D】The Chinese themselves adapted many specific vessel forms from theWest, such as bottles with long spouts, and designed a range of decorativepatterns especially for the European market.
14. Directions: An introductory sentencefor a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary byselecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in thepassage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideasthat not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. Thisquestion is worth 2 points.
Ceramics have been produced in China for avery long time.
A.The Chinese produced earthenware,stoneware, and porcelain pottery and they used their ceramics for a variety ofutilitarian, architectural, and ceremonial purposes.
B. The shape and decoration of ceramicsproduced for religious use in China were influenced by Chinese ceramicsproduced for export.
C.As a result of trade relations, Chineseceramic production changed and Chinese influenced the ceramics production ofother countries.
D. Chinese burial ceramics have the longestand most varied history of production and were frequently decorated withwritten texts that help scholars date them.
E.Before China had contact with the West,the meaning of various designs used to decorate Chinese ceramics was wellunderstood.
F.Ceramics made in imperial factories wereused in both religious and non-religious contexts.
托福 阅读答案
1.status状态，地位，所以B的importance重要性，地位正确。原句说瓷器的作用和什么因朝代而不同，而且之后有解释可能是实用的，用于埋葬的，或者blabla，所以importance能对上。origin起源不可能因为朝代而变化;quality后面有，不应该重复;design与后文的例子对不上
2.问题中的关键词不能用，所以排除法最好。A的dynasty todynasty做关键词定位至第一句，说反，错;B的trade objects和ritual objects做关键词定位至第一句，原文没有比较，错;C的quality做关键词定位至第一句，说根据它们质量决定用来干嘛，所以质量是有变化的，C错;D的religious和earthenware做关键词定位至最后一句，正确
3.evolve进化，演化，所以C的develop正确。原文说七到十世纪的白瓷怎么样成了宋代的很好的瓷，无论从时间上还是后面说的highly prized都证明后面的比前面的好，所以应该是变好的意思，A分开B延伸D消失都没有变好之意
4.原文的主要关系是因果，因果的结果部分包含了一个转折，所以从结构上说只有B和D可能正确。B正确，D错在原文说stoneware和porcelain比religious sculpture清楚，但没说religious sculpture不清楚，错
5.EXCEPT题，排除法。A的high-firedceramics做关键词定位至第二句，原文说good quality, 备选项说poor，反了，错，选;B的Tang and Ming Dynasty做关键词定位至最后一句，正确，不选;C的earthenware和stoneware做关键词定位至第一句，原文说最早的是earthenware，所以比stoneware早，所以C正确，不选;D的Song dynasty做关键词定位至第三句，正确，不选
6.nstigate教唆，鼓动，煽动，所以cause引起正确，注意不要被investigate迷惑。原句说那些陶器非常惹人喜爱，促进了earthenware的发展，也instigate了制陶 方法 的研究，instigate与原文的encourage并列，所以应该是鼓励之意。A提升改善B调查C变窄均不正确
7.以trade of Chineseceramics做关键词定位至倒数第二句，问结果，所以应该关注result in之后的内容，说大量的Chinese porcelain到了欧洲，影响了一系列ware，接着又说会专门为欧洲市场做一些ware，所以C正确;注意B尽管说到了change，但immediate是原文没说的;A没说;D说反了，应该是增加
8.注意 句子 中的seem和in fact，seem叫做看上去，也就是事实很可能不是这样，后面的in fact叫做事实上，也就是说前面说的很可能不是事实，两者呼应，都说明两句话之间的关系是转折，所以while正确
9.先看本句，现代人认为希腊的pots上的design只是装饰，没有实际意义，但事实上是有意义的，中国的pots也这样，所以B正确。A错，不是pots decorative，而是design;C说反，D没说方式，所以how错
10.问下面哪个是design的替代意义，倒数第二句整个都在说pots上design的意义，提到了emperor和empress，皇帝和皇后，所以A的Chinese rulers正确，统治者;其他都没说
11.问题中关键词不明显，排除法。A的ordinarycitizens和aristocrat原文没说;B的foreign influence做关键词定位至最后一句的European，说直到引入欧洲theme之后中国原有的装饰的意思才被obscure，对应B，没有foreign influence那些意思不会改变，正确;C没说;D反了，应该是ancient更熟悉
12.these往前找，找主语。注意从句子一开始到exist之前都是句子的主语，但of之前的东西是整个句子的核心，所以答案是description，对于什么什么的描述，描述才是核心，不是types of ware
13.两个过渡点，名词foreign trade和coloring。foreigntrade对应原文第四句的from Middle East Chinese acquired blabla和倒数第二句的tradingactivities，所以B/C/D都有可能;coloring证明B或者C正确。按照正常逻辑，应该先总括，说外贸也使染色技术发生变化，接着再说怎么变的，所以B正确，C错误
14.The Chinese选项对应第二段第二句，正确
The shape选项原文没说，不选
As选项对应原文第四段第一句，正确
Chinese选项原文没说，不选
Before选项对应原文第五段最后一句，正确
Ceramics选项MS对应原文最后一段，但最后一段没说imperial陶瓷是用于both情况的，也不选
托福阅读译文
【1】尽管中国曾饱受入侵，偶尔丧失主权受制于外国，她仍然拥有世界上最源远流长的文明。像中国一个拥有悠久文明的大国，而陶瓷在其复杂的社会历史以及视觉历史中扮演了极为重要的角色。
【2】在中国，每一个朝代陶瓷的功能和地位都是不同的，所以，根据它们的质量和制作年代的不同，可以是实用器物、陪葬品、贸易 收藏 品，甚至是礼器。对于容器、瓦片等建筑材料、模仿的物体或人物，陶瓷广义上被分为3大类：陶器、炻器和瓷器。另外，瓷器中还有很重要的一类就是宗教用途的雕塑，它们多数是陶质的。
【3】尽管最早的陶瓷是在制陶的温度下烧制的，但是早在公元前15世纪，就已经出现了上釉的高温炻器。六朝时期(公元265-589年)，中国北方就有窑炉在烧制优质的高温瓷器。从7世纪到10世纪，河北以及河南省产的白瓷逐渐演变成为享有盛名的宋瓷(公元960-1279年)——长久以来被认为是中国陶瓷业历史中的巅峰时期之一。宗教雕塑的传统在大部分历史时期中都有延续，但是没有炻器和瓷器质地的雕塑描绘的那么清晰，有一种古老的习俗，就是将刻着新的宗教形象和建筑装饰的陶器作为陪葬品。瓷制品还包括汉朝的铅釉随葬陶俑，唐朝的三彩铅釉器皿和人物，明朝的以泥釉凸纹展现轮廓的三彩寺庙装饰物以及很多用来仿制贵重器皿的陪葬瓷器。
【4】西方国家和繁荣稳定的历代中国朝代之间的贸易促使双方互相引入了新的形式和不同的技术。有一个意义最为深远的例子，公元9世纪精美中国瓷器出口到阿拉伯世界，带来巨大的影响。阿拉伯人对这些瓷器赞不绝口，于是他们鼓励制陶来仿制瓷器，并激励人们研究制作方法。中国人从中东获得了一种蓝色颜料——一种纯化的氧化钴，当时在中国并未出现，其中只含有少量的锰。中国境内发现的钴矿石含有大量的会产生暗蓝灰色的锰元素。17世纪，大量中国装饰类瓷器通过荷兰东印度公司的交易活动流入欧洲，这刺激和影响了广泛多样的瓷器的生产，特别是代尔夫特 。中国人自己改良了很多种来自西方的特殊器皿，比如长嘴的瓶子，并专门为欧洲市场设计了一系列装饰性图案。
【5】就像希腊的陶器上所绘的图案，今天看来也许纯粹是为了装饰，然而事实上在当时它们都是人们精心烧制而成的，它们的意义在当时非常明确，中国的瓷器也是如此。以20世纪的眼光来看，中国制造的陶瓷也许仅仅是装饰品，但是对于中国人来说每个物件的形状及它的装饰都有寓意非凡，影响深远。龙代表皇帝，凤代表皇后;石榴意味着多子，双鱼意味着幸福;鸳鸯寓意着婚姻幸福美满;松树、桃树以及鹤都是长寿的象征;鱼跃出水面意味着科举考试会高中。但是欧洲的装饰主题被引进后，这些寓意就变得不再那么流行甚至丢失了。
【6】陶瓷器皿在很早期就已用于宗教和日常生活中。朝廷分派了制作工作，并于元朝(公元1279-1368年)在景德镇设立了一座官窑。陶瓷器皿在一些宗教仪式上也有着重要的地位。现存的关于不同类型的陶瓷器具很多长篇且抒情的描述可以帮助我们对其进行分类，尽管这些描述有时候会使得一幅大而复杂的画面显得凌乱。
托福阅读TPO10(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:Chinese Pottery相关 文章 ：
联系我们请扫一扫上面二维码